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bioRxiv2024

Exploring the Pharmacological Potential of Kaurenoic Acid Produced via Synthetic Biology

BackgroundKaurenoic acid (KA) is a bioactive diterpenoid commonly found in traditional medicinal plants such as Copaifera species, widely used in Amazonian ethnomedicine for its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. However, the sustainable supply of KA is limited due to environmental pressures and its complex extraction process from natural sources. Synthetic biology presents an innovative solution for producing KA, potentially reducing environmental impact while maintaining its traditional medicinal value. Aim of the studyThis work discusses the potential bioactive properties of kaurenoic acid (KA) obtained through synthetic biology. While ethnopharmacological studies have highlighted the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects of plant extracts containing KA, limited research has focused on the pure compound due to its cost and limited availability. Materials and methodsThe study employed quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) modeling and in vitro assays to investigate the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities of S-KA and KNa. Physicochemical characterization, including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), was conducted to compare structural properties and purity with G-KA. Additionally, solubility studies were performed across various solvents to assess the potential for different bioapplications. ResultsPurity assessments revealed 99.06% for S-KA versus 98.83% for a commercial standard. In silico calculations indicated that KA is hydrophobic. Solubility tests prompted the synthesis of a sodium salt derivative (KNa), increasing water solubility. Experimental evaluations demonstrated that S-KA and KNa exhibited similar (IL-6, IL-8) anti-inflammatory activity compared to betamethasone, and growth inhibition was observed against Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. ConclusionThese findings highlight that kaurenoic acid from fermentation offers a sustainable alternative to naturally sourced KA with comparable bioactivity. The sodium salt derivative (KNa) enhances water solubility, expanding its potential for pharmacological applications. This study highlights the relevance of synthetic biology in preserving traditional medicinal knowledge while promoting environmental sustainability.

pharmacology and toxicology↗

bioRxiv2019

Deep Learning for RNA Synthetic Biology

Engineered RNA elements are programmable tools capable of detecting small molecules, proteins, and nucleic acids. Predicting the behavior of these tools remains a challenge, a situation that could be addressed through enhanced pattern recognition from deep learning. Thus, we investigate Deep Neural Networks (DNN) to predict toehold switch function as a canonical riboswitch model in synthetic biology. To facilitate DNN training, we synthesized and characterized in vivo a dataset of 91,534 toehold switches spanning 23 viral genomes and 906 human transcription factors. DNNs trained on nucleotide sequences outperformed (R2=0.43-0.70) previous state-of-the-art thermodynamic and kinetic models (R2=0.04-0.15) and allowed for human-understandable attention-visualizations (VIS4Map) to identify success and failure modes. This deep learning approach constitutes a major step forward in engineering and understanding of RNA synthetic biology. One Sentence SummaryDeep neural networks are used to improve functionality prediction and provide insights on toehold switches as a model for RNA synthetic biology tools.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2020

Galaxy-SynBioCAD: Synthetic Biology Design Automation tools in Galaxy workflows

Many computer-aided design tools are available for synthetic biology and metabolic engineering. Yet, these tools can be difficult to apprehend, sometimes requiring a level of expertise that limits their use by a wider community. Furthermore, some of the tools, although complementary, rely on different input and output formats and cannot communicate with one another. Scientific workflows address these shortcomings while offering a novel design strategy. Among the workflow systems available, Galaxy is a web-based platform for performing findable and accessible data analyses for all scientists regardless of their informatics expertise, along with interoperable and reproducible computations regardless of the particular platform that is being used. Here, we introduce the Galaxy-SynBioCADa portal, the first Galaxy toolshed for synthetic biology and metabolic engineering. It allows one to easily create workflows or use those already developed by the community. The portal is a growing community effort where developers can add new tools and users can evaluate the tools performing design for their specific projects. The tools and workflows currently shared on the Galaxy-SynBioCAD portal cover an end-to-end metabolic pathway design process from the selection of strain and target to the calculation of DNA parts to be assembled to build libraries of strains to be engineered to produce the target. Standard formats are used throughout to enforce the compatibility of the tools. These include SBML for strain and pathway and SBOL for genetic layouts. The portal has been benchmarked on 81 literature pathways, overall, we find we have a 65% (and 88%) success rate in retrieving the literature pathways among the top 10 (50) pathways predicted and generated by the workflows.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2017

Spatially organizing biochemistry: choosing a strategy to translate synthetic biology to the factory

Natural biochemical systems are ubiquitously organized both in space and time. Engineering the spatial organization of biochemistry has emerged as a key theme of synthetic biology, with numerous technologies promising improved biosynthetic pathway performance. One strategy, however, may produce disparate results for different biosynthetic pathways. We propose a spatially resolved kinetic model to explore this fundamental design choice in systems and synthetic biology. We predict that two example biosynthetic pathways have distinct optimal organization strategies that vary based on pathway-dependent and cell-extrinsic factors. Moreover, we outline this design space in general as a function of kinetic and biophysical properties, as well as culture conditions. Our results suggest that organizing biosynthesis has the potential to substantially improve performance, but that choosing the appropriate strategy is key. The flexible mathematical framework we propose can be adapted to diverse biosynthetic pathways, and lays a foundation to rationally choose organization strategies for biosynthesis.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2019

A low cost, open source Turbidostat design for in-vivo control experiments in Synthetic Biology

To characterise the dynamics of new engineered systems in Synthetic biology, continuous culture platforms are required. In this paper, after a brief review of the existing machines present in literature, we describe the design and the implementation of a new flexible and low cost turbidostat for in-vivo control experiments. Then, the results of a 3 hours long experiment of control of the Optical Density is reported. Since the foundation of our design is flexibility, in this work we also discuss some possible extensions of our design, with particular attention to their application to validate in-vivo multicellular control design.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2016

Development of prokaryotic cell-free systems for synthetic biology

Prokaryotic cell-free systems are currently heavily used for the production of protein that can be otherwise challenging to produce in cells. However, historically cell-free systems were used to explore natural phenomena before the advent of genetic modification and transformation technology. Recently, synthetic biology has seen a resurgence of this historical use of cell-free systems as a prototyping tool of synthetic and natural genetic circuits. For these cell-free systems to be effective prototyping tools, an understanding of cell-free system mechanics must be established that is not purely protein-expression driven. Here we discuss the development of E. coli-based cell-free systems, with an emphasis on documenting published extract and energy preparation methods into a uniform format. We also discuss additional considerations when applying cell-free systems to synthetic biology.

Synthetic Biology↗

bioRxiv2017

BacilloFlex: A modular DNA assembly toolkit for Bacillus subtilis synthetic biology

Bacillus subtilis is a valuable industrial production platform for proteins, a bacterial model for cellular differentiation and its endospores have been proposed as a vehicle for vaccine delivery. As such B. subtilis is a major synthetic biology chassis but, unlike Escherichia coli, lacks a standardized toolbox for genetic manipulation. EcoFlex is a versatile modular DNA assembly toolkit for E. coli synthetic biology based on Golden Gate cloning. Here we introduce BacilloFlex, an extension of the EcoFlex assembly standard to B. subtilis. Transcription units flanked by sequences homologous to loci in the B. subtilis genome were rapidly assembled by the EcoFlex standard and subsequently chromosomally integrated. At present, BacilloFlex includes a range of multi-functional B. subtilis specific parts with applications including metabolic engineering, biosensors and spore surface display. We hope this work will form the foundation of a widely adopted cloning standard for B. subtilis facilitating collaboration and the sharing of parts.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2024

Tunable Low-Rate Genomic Recombination with Cre-lox in E. coli: A Versatile Tool for Synthetic Biology and Environmental Sensing

The ability to induce heritable genomic changes in response to environmental cues is valuable for environmental biosensing, for experimentally probing microbial ecology and evolution, and for synthetic biology applications. Site-specific recombinases provide a route to genetic memory via targeted DNA modifications, but their high specificity and efficiency are offset by leaky expression and limited tunability in prokaryotes. We developed a tightly regulated, titratable Cre recombinase system for Escherichia coli that achieves low recombination rates and minimal basal activity. Implemented on both plasmids and the chromosome, the latter showed superior retention of genetic memory across generations. These features make the system broadly useful for environmental biosensing and other applications. To demonstrate applicability to environmental biosensing, we developed a whole-cell recombination-based biosensor for arsenite, a toxic and ubiquitous pollutant that is primarily mobilized in anoxic environments such as flooded soils, sediments, and aquifers. However, existing arsenite whole-cell biosensors face limitations in sensitivity and workflow in anaerobic settings. Our biosensor reliably recorded anoxic arsenite exposure as a stable genetic memory for delayed fluorescence readout in aerobic conditions, with detection sensitivity comparable to conventional wet chemical methods. By decoupling exposure from measurement, this approach offers a foundation for arsenite biosensing under field-relevant conditions, including redox variability and other physicochemical gradients, without the constraints of anoxic measurement. More broadly, the ability to induce low-rate, heritable genetic changes expands the genetic toolkit for environmentally responsive systems, with applications in environmental monitoring, bioproduction, bioengineering, as well as experimental studies of microbial ecology, evolution, and host-microbe interactions. IMPORTANCEArsenic is a toxic and globally prevalent pollutant, mobilized primarily under anoxic conditions where detection is challenging. Whole-cell biosensors offer a promising route for monitoring bioavailable arsenic in situ, but their development has largely focused on aerobic conditions, with anoxic assays limited by sensitivity and workflow constraints. Genetic tools that enable heritable, low-frequency genomic changes in bacteria can expand biosensor capabilities by recording transient exposures and supporting applications in environmental monitoring, synthetic biology, and quantitative microbial population dynamics research. Here, we developed a tightly regulated, chemically inducible Cre-lox system in Escherichia coli that enables recombination at low, tunable rates. We demonstrate its utility by constructing an arsenite biosensor that reliably detects low concentrations and records exposures under both aerobic and anoxic conditions. This approach is broadly applicable for biosensors designed for field deployment and for experiments investigating microbial ecology and evolution, where controllable genetic diversification may be desirable.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2023

A quantitative autonomous bioluminescence reporter system with a wide dynamic range for Plant Synthetic Biology

Engineered autonomous bioluminescence (EAB) offers many potential applications in Plant Synthetic Biology, notably as in vivo reporter system. Current EAB reporter configurations are limited for quantitative applications due to low dynamic range. We reconfigured the Neonothopanus nambi fungal bioluminescence (NeoLuc) pathway to serve as a high-throughput and inexpensive reporter for quantitative analysis of gene expression. We showed that by configuring the first committed step in the pathway (HispS) as the transcriptional entry point instead of the fungal luciferase, the dynamic range of the output increased dramatically, equaling that of the FLuc/RLuc reporter, and outperforming it in high throughput capacity. Furthermore, the inclusion of an enhanced GFP as normalizer allowed transient ratiometric measurements in N. benthamiana. Fast and rich datasets generated by the NeoLuc/eGFP system enabled us to undertake the optimization of new challenging synthetic gene circuits, including a complex agrochemical/optogenetic dual input switch for tight control of engineered metabolic pathways.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2023

Enabling AI in Synthetic Biology through Construction File Specification

The Construction File (CF) specification establishes a standardized interface for molecular biology operations, laying a foundation for automation and enhanced efficiency in experiment design. It is implemented across three distinct software projects: PyDNA_CF_Simulator, a Python project featuring a ChatGPT plugin for interactive parsing and simulating experiments; ConstructionFileSimulator, a field-tested Java project that showcases Experiment objects expressed as flat files; and C6-Tools, a JavaScript project integrated with Google Sheets via Apps Script, providing a user-friendly interface for authoring and simulation of CF. The CF specification not only standardizes and modularizes molecular biology operations but also promotes collaboration, automation, and reuse, significantly reducing potential errors. The potential integration of CF with artificial intelligence, particularly GPT-4, suggests innovative automation strategies for synthetic biology. While challenges such as token limits, data storage, and biosecurity remain, proposed solutions promise a way forward in harnessing AI for experiment design. This shift from human-driven design to AI-assisted workflows, steered by high-level objectives, charts a potential future path in synthetic biology, envisioning an environment where complexities are managed more effectively.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2023

POMBOX: a fission yeast toolkit for molecular and synthetic biology

Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a popular model organism in molecular biology and cell physiology. With its ease of genetic manipulation and growth, supported by in-depth functional annotation in the PomBase database and genome-wide metabolic models, S. pombe is an attractive option for synthetic biology applications. However, S. pombe currently lacks modular tools for generating genetic circuits with more than one transcriptional unit. We have developed a toolkit to address this issue. Adapted from the MoClo- YTK plasmid kit for Saccharomyces cerevisiae and using the same Golden Gate grammar, our POMBOX toolkit is designed to facilitate the fast, efficient and modular construction of genetic circuits in S. pombe. It allows for interoperability when working with DNA sequences that are functional in both S. cerevisiae and S. pombe (e.g. protein tag, antibiotic resistance cassette, coding sequences). Moreover, POMBOX enables the modular assembly of multi-gene pathways and increases possible pathway length from 6 to 12 transcriptional units. We also adapted the stable integration vector homology arms to Golden Gate assembly and tested the genomic integration success rate depending on different sequence sizes, from four to twenty-four kilobases. We included fourteen S. pombe promoters that we characterized for two fluorescent proteins, in both minimal defined media (EMM2) and complex media (YES). Then we tested six S. cerevisiae and six synthetic terminators in S. pombe. Finally, we used the POMBOX kit for a synthetic biology application in metabolic engineering and expressed plant enzymes in S. pombe to produce specialized metabolite precursors, namely methylxanthine, amorpha-4,11-diene and cinnamic acid from the purine, mevalonate and amino acid pathways.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2026

An integrated synthetic biology and robotics approach for neutralising landmines in post-war communities

Unexploded ordnances (UX.Os) and landmines endanger lives and hinder the economic progress of communities living in post-conflict zones. Currently, the primary method for clearing UX.Os relies on metal detection and manual removal of UX.Os - an expensive, time-consuming, and hazardous process. This study, derived from the 2024 EPFL iGEM project SYNPLODE, presents a new approach that integrates synthetic biology and aerial drone robotics, proposing a novel, end-to-end, safe, and efficient solution to address UX.Os. Starting from bacteria engineered to detect and degrade 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), a common explosive in landmines, our solution is designed for three main tasks: detecting TNT and RDX, breaking these compounds down into non-explosive byproducts, and confirming explosive neutralisation. To deploy this solution safely in UXO-contaminated areas, we designed, built, and tested an aerial drone capable of spraying explosive-degrading bacteria. Combining synthetic biology, robotics, mathematical modelling, and affected community engagement, our solution aims to improve UXO and landmine clearance by offering a scalable and cost-effective approach for deactivating UX.Os without risking human lives.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2025

DASH: A versatile and high-capacity gene stacking system for plant synthetic biology

DNA assembly systems based on the Golden Gate method are popular in synthetic biology but have several limitations: small insert size, incompatibility with other cloning platforms, DNA domestication requirement, generation of fusion scars, and lack of post-assembly modification. To address these obstacles, we present the DASH assembly toolset, which combines features of Golden Gate-based cloning, recombineering, and site-specific recombinase systems. We developed (1) a set of donor vectors based on the GoldenBraid platform, (2) an acceptor vector derived from the plant transformation-competent artificial chromosome (TAC) vector, pYLTAC17, and (3) a re-engineered recombineering-ready E. coli strain, CZ105, based on SW105. The initial assembly steps are carried out using the donor vectors following standard GoldenBraid assembly procedures. Importantly, existing parts and transcriptional units created using compatible Golden Gate-based systems can be transferred to the DASH donor vectors using standard single-tube restriction/ligation reactions. The cargo DNA from a DASH donor vector is then efficiently transferred in vivo in E. coli into the acceptor vector by the sequential action of a rhamnose-inducible phage-derived PhiC31 integrase and arabinose-inducible yeast-derived Flippase (FLP) recombinase using CZ105. Furthermore, recombineering-based post-assembly modification, including the removal of undesirable scars, is greatly simplified. To demonstrate the utility of the DASH system, a 116 kb DNA construct harboring a 97 kb cargo consisting of 35 transcriptional units was generated. One of the CDSs in the final assembly was replaced through recombineering, and the in planta functionality of the entire construct was tested in both transient and stable transformants.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2019

Joint Universal Modular Plasmids (JUMP): A flexible and comprehensive platform for synthetic biology

Complex multi-gene plasmids can be built from basic DNA parts in a reliable and automation friendly way using modular cloning standards, based on Golden Gate cloning. However, each toolkit or standard is limited to one or a few different vectors, which has led to an overabundance of toolkits with varying degrees of compatibility. Here, we present the Joint Universal Modular Plasmids (JUMP), a vector design that overcomes the limitations of current toolkits by expanding the paradigm of modular cloning: all vectors can be modified using modular cloning in an orthogonal way using multiple cloning sites. This allows researchers to introduce any feature into any JUMP vector and simplifies the Design-Build-Test cycle of synthetic biology. JUMP vectors are compatible with PhytoBrick basic parts, BioBricks and the Registry of Standard Biological Parts, and the Standard European Vector Architecture (SEVA). Due to their flexible design, JUMP vectors have the potential to be a universal platform for synthetic biology regardless of host and application. A collection of JUMP backbones and microbial PhytoBrick basic parts are available for distribution.\n\n\n\nO_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=164 SRC=\"FIGDIR/small/799585v1_ufig1.gif\" ALT=\"Figure 1\">\nView larger version (38K):\norg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@142615forg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@106c571org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@18cb5a2org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@e8cb95_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Kluyveromyces marxianus as a robust synthetic biology platform host

Throughout history, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has played a central role in human society due to its use in food production and more recently as a major industrial and model microorganism, because of the many genetic and genomic tools available to probe its biology. However S. cerevisiae has proven difficult to engineer to expand the carbon sources it can utilize, the products it can make, and the harsh conditions it can tolerate in industrial applications. Other yeasts that could solve many of these problems remain difficult to manipulate genetically. Here, we engineer the thermotolerant yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus to create a new synthetic biology platform. Using CRISPR-Cas9 mediated genome editing, we show that wild isolates of K. marxianus can be made heterothallic for sexual crossing. By breeding two of these mating-type engineered K. marxianus strains, we combined three complex traits- thermotolerance, lipid production, and facile transformation with exogenous DNA-into a single host. The ability to cross K. marxianus strains with relative ease, together with CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, should enable engineering of K. marxianus isolates with promising lipid production at temperatures far exceeding those of other fungi under development for industrial applications. These results establish K. marxianus as a synthetic biology platform comparable to S. cerevisiae, with naturally more robust traits that hold potential for the industrial production of renewable chemicals.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2026

Engineering S. cerevisiae extracellular vesicles using synthetic biology

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) hold great promise as therapeutic delivery vehicles, leveraging their natural role as mediators of intercellular communication in all organisms studied. However, many barriers must be overcome to realize their full potential. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an attractive chassis organism to explore solutions: It is used for drug biomanufacturing, it is amenable to complex genetic engineering, and their EVs can drive responses in human cells. To further develop this prospect, we sought to genetically modify S. cerevisiae EVs by devising a research framework amenable to iterative design, build, test, learn cycles - a core principle of synthetic biology. Using this approach, we focused on identifying new scaffolds - proteins that load cargoes into EVs - from a small pool of candidates. We first optimized a modular cloning strategy, called "EVclo", for plasmid and genome-integrated candidate gene expression. Candidate genes were fused to EGFP, and after confirming expression in cells, we showed that scaffold-EFGP proteins colocalized with mRuby2-tagged Nhx1, a biomarker of multivesicular bodies, presumed sites of EV biogenesis. We triggered release of EVs by heat stress, isolated these EVs by ultrafiltration and size exclusion chromatography, and confirmed the presence of exosome-sized EVs in all samples. We find that candidate scaffold proteins did not affect EV size, morphology or titers. Further analysis of these samples indicated that some EGFP-tagged scaffolds are present in EVs: Bro1, a yeast ortholog of ALIX, was most abundant and ExoSignal showed highest enrichment of the human candidates. In all, we conclude that Bro1 is a good scaffold for future engineering strategies, and that human proteins can be sorted into yeast EVs suggesting conservation of the sorting machinery and demonstrating that yeast EVs can be humanized. This synthetic biology-based, proof-of-concept study establishes S. cerevisiae as a platform to engineer and bioproduce designer EVs for many applications. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=167 HEIGHT=200 SRC="FIGDIR/small/710173v1_ufig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (52K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@15d407corg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@134c916org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@7de2beorg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@b15348_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG HIGHLIGHTS AND TOC BLURBO_LIsynthetic biology-based system was optimized to engineer EVs in S. cerevisiae C_LIO_LIEV scaffolds can be sorted to yeast EVs C_LIO_LIis an efficient scaffold to sort proteins into yeast EVs C_LIO_LIS. cerevisiae can be used to engineer designer EVs for drug delivery C_LI Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a promising new modality for drug delivery. However, designer EVs must be engineered to broaden applications and improve efficacy. Here, Bouffard et al. optimize methods rooted in synthetic biology to genetically engineer EVs in S. cerevisiae, a yeast commonly used to manufacture biological drugs. They find that ectopically expressed human EV scaffolds (CD63, ExoSignal, PDGFR) can be sorted to yeast EVs, but Bro1 - the yeast ortholog of ALIX - was most efficient at sorting GFP into EVs. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates a single DBTL (design-build-test-learn) cycle that can be used to develop designer EVs for therapeutic applications.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2022

Galaxy-SynBioCAD: Automated Pipeline for Synthetic Biology Design and Engineering

We introduce the Galaxy-SynBioCAD portal, the first toolshed for synthetic biology, metabolic engineering, and industrial biotechnology. The tools and workflows currently shared on the portal enables one to build libraries of strains producing desired chemical targets covering an end-to-end metabolic pathway design and engineering process from the selection of strains and targets, the design of DNA parts to be assembled, to the generation of scripts driving liquid handlers for plasmid assembly and strain transformations. Standard formats like SBML and SBOL are used throughout to enforce the compatibility of the tools. In a study carried out at four different sites, we illustrate the link between pathway design and engineering with the building of a library of E. coli lycopene-producing strains. We also benchmarked our workflows on literature and expert validated pathways. Overall, we find an 83% success rate in retrieving the validated pathways among the top 10 pathways generated by the workflows.

synthetic biology↗

bioRxiv2024

Multifunctional Systems in Synthetic Biology: Single-Stranded DNA Signaling for Precise Control of Gene Activation

Controllable gene circuits that respond to defined inputs are essential tools in synthetic biology. By leveraging regulatory mechanisms at either transcriptional or translational levels, synthetic responsive systems have been engineered to recognize diverse signals, such as small molecules (e.g., tetracycline) or physical stimuli (e.g., light). However, these approaches have limitations: small-molecule signals often require high concentrations to be effective, and sophisticated engineering is needed to generate responsive effectors. Here, we establish a simple, versatile gene activation system in which short single-stranded DNAs trigger RNA or protein production by complementing defective single-stranded promoters upstream of target genes. We demonstrate selective gene activation with orthogonal promoters, and logic-gate operations with signal pairs. The signaling system operates in compartmentalized nanoliter droplets scaffolded by bilayers. Signal delivery is controlled by selectively disrupting bilayers or applying transmembrane potential to move signals through protein pores, thereby activating genes within the receiver compartments. This work expands the toolset for engineering multifunctional, responsive materials to meet biotechnological and medical needs, enabling gene activation in response to specific cues.

synthetic biology↗