Biology subjects

Collignon, O.

Publications and source records attributed to Collignon, O..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Early blindness shifts the feedforward laminar profile of hMT+/V5 from visual to auditory motion

The occipital cortex of people born blind massively enhances its response to sounds, but the brain circuitry supporting such crossmodal plasticity remains elusive. Here we capitalized on ultra-high-field fMRI (7T) coupled with sub-millimetre BOLD and VASO acquisitions to infer whether motion-related information is processed via feedforward or feedback pathways, probing responses to visual motion in sighted participants and auditory motion in both sighted and early blind individuals. By identifying circuitry from layer-dependent activity of the middle temporal cortex (hMT+/V5), we observed that moving, but not static, sounds selectively elicited a feedforward response in the middle layers of hMT+/V5 of blind people, analogous to visual motion processing in sighted individuals. Furthermore, we observed that hMT+/V5 shows enhanced auditory motion-selective connectivity with the Planum Temporale in the sighted and with the cuneus in blind people. These findings reveal that hMT+/V5 implements a feedforward motion selective response profile in sighted and blind individuals, with its sensory input shifting from vision to audition in the absence of visual experience.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2026

Primary and higher-order thalamic nuclei make distinct contributions to cortical reorganization in congenital sensory loss

Early sensory loss transforms the functional organization of affected sensory systems, with regions that normally support vision or audition participating in noncanonical perceptual and cognitive functions. Such reorganization requires coordination across distributed networks. Higher-order thalamic nuclei are positioned to support these interactions through their widespread reciprocal cortical connectivity, yet studies of sensory-loss plasticity have focused primarily on cortex and first-order sensory pathways. Here, we combined structural and functional MRI in early blind and early deaf adults to test how reorganization after sensory loss is expressed across thalamocortical networks. In blindness, structural differences were concentrated along the primary input pathway, with reduced lateral geniculate nucleus volume that covaried with areal organization of primary visual cortex. Functional reorganization was more broadly distributed, with visual cortex showing greater similarity with higher-order (association) thalamic nuclei linked to cognitive control, paralleling a shift toward cognitive-control networks across cortex. This pattern was amplified during a nonvisual perceptual judgment task. Across visual cortex, cross-network functional differences were strongest in regions showing the largest structural effects. A related shift toward control-associated higher-order thalamus was observed in deafness, indicating that higher-order thalamic involvement generalizes across sensory modalities. Together, these results indicate that thalamocortical architecture shapes both the developmental consequences of early sensory loss and the capacity for distributed functional reorganization.

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bioRxiv2026

Lexical and Semantic Coding in the Occipital Cortex of Sighted and Blind

How early visual cortex (EVC) supports language and semantic processing in sighted and congenitally blind individuals remains debated. Some predict that blindness induces radical functional reorganization of EVC, whereas others suggest more modest scaling-up changes of a neurofunctional architecture present in sighted individuals. We recorded whole-head MEG in 19 early blind (EB) and 21 sighted adults (SC) listening to spoken adjectives belonging to different semantic categories (i.e., abstract, concrete visual, concrete non-visual) and performing lexical and semantic decision tasks. In the lexical task, lexical information (i.e., word vs pseudoword) could be reliably decoded in perisylvian language areas and the EVC of both groups, with group differences (EB > SC) localized to occipital areas between 0.4 and 0.8 s after word onset. During the semantic task, semantic category information could be decoded in a network overlapping with the canonical semantic system and encompassing the EVC of both groups, with group differences (EB > SC) localized to occipital areas between 0.9 and 1 s after stimulus onset. We further characterized EVC properties and showed that i) EVC semantic information decoding is task sensitive, with no above-chance decoding in EB or SC in the lexical task ii) in the blind EVC it was possible to decode abstract from concrete concepts but not visual from non-visual concepts, a profile similar to that of posterior cingulate areas, but different to anterior cingulate cortex which showed above chance classification for all semantic categories. These results suggest that deprived EVC is integrated into a distributed lexical-semantic network carrying behaviourally relevant semantic information, although to a different extent.

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bioRxiv2026

Early sensory deprivation drives local reorganization of sensory integration within a conserved global hierarchy

The human brain processes sensory information through a hierarchical system, from primary to higher-level regions, integrating inputs across modalities to support perception and cognition. While early sensory loss triggers widespread neuroplastic changes, its impact on integration across the cortical hierarchy remains unclear. Here, we examined the cortical reorganization of individuals with early blindness and deafness using a sensory integration framework that quantifies how brain regions prioritize different sensory inputs across the hierarchy. We found that early sensory deprivation drives highly localized reorganization adjacent to the deprived primary cortical areas: extrastriate cortex in early blindness and the superior temporal cortex in early deafness. These findings were further corroborated by analysis of the functional gradients, which found reorganization within these sensory regions. Notably, the hierarchy was largely preserved across groups. However, the sensory integration framework uniquely detected reorganization in language-related regions in deaf individuals with knowledge of a visual communication system known as cued speech. The specific differences between early deaf and hearing individuals remained restricted to superior temporal cortex. Together, our findings demonstrate that early sensory deprivation drives targeted reorganization adjacent to the affected primary sensory cortex, while preserving the overall hierarchy of cortical integration.

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bioRxiv2026

Feedforward computational models of vision do not explain expert neural processing of visual Braille in the human visual system

The human visual system, and in particular the Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), adapts to process letters and words, even when the stimuli do not share canonical script features, like Braille. Here we set-up to compare the organization of typical orthographic and peculiar visual scripts such as Braille in computational models. In a first experiment, we looked at how Braille letters are represented in an illiterate Convolutional Neural Network (AlexNet) and compared them to Latin alphabet and to Line Braille, a custom line-based script. We observed a predisposition of the network, pre-trained to perform object recognition, for line-based scripts. This finding suggests an initial advantage of line junctions over Braille in processing scripts likely based on typical visual computations applied to the visual world. In a second experiment, we trained two benchmark neural network architectures (AlexNet, CORnet Z) to classify words in the Latin script (literacy acquisition) and then in the Braille script (expertise acquisition). We modelled the processing of reading visual Braille and explored the networks representations at different layers. We observed clustering of features based on the visual properties of the scripts and not by the networks expertise. Unlike human participants, the representations of linguistic categories do not converge to a model of the linguistic (orthographic, phonological, semantic) properties. Overall, the lack of alignment between the visual processing of the trained computational models and neural data recorded in expert humans suggests that the fundamental processing of reading cannot be fully explained by simple feed-forward visual processing of the script, but likely relies on additional mechanisms including interactive relations between the visual and linguistic systems.

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bioRxiv2026

Serial dependence generalizes across the senses

Our perception often shows systematic biases revealing how the brains internal representation diverges from the physical world. In particular, what happened in the recent past can systematically attract current percepts, making them appear more similar to previous stimuli. Does this phenomenon reflect a low-level mechanism encapsulated within each sensory modality, or instead a higher-order post-perceptual decisional mechanism? Here we investigate the existence, mechanisms, and neural signature of serial dependence across vision and audition for numerosity perception. In a series of three complementary experiments, we show that serial dependence can transfer across modalities and is modulated by cross-modal attention. Electroencephalographic recordings further reveal that both uni-modal and cross-modal effects similarly emerge during the perceptual processing of the stimuli. Our results thus challenge both current mainstream accounts of serial dependence based on low-level and high-level computations, critically pointing to a central role of a functional, mid-level multisensory network in generating this phenomenon.

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bioRxiv2025

Representation of emotional expressions across the face and voice brain networks

Recognizing emotion expressions from facial and vocal signals is crucial for optimal social interactions. We comprehensively characterized regions within the face and voice processing networks to probe their contribution to unimodal and crossmodal emotion representation. Using multivariate pattern classification analyses, we found that emotional expressions could be reliably decoded from the dominant sensory modality in all individually defined face- and voice-selective regions. Emotion expressions from the non-dominant modality (vocal expressions in the face networks, and vice versa) could also be decoded in all areas except the occipital face areas. A shared neural code for facial and vocal emotions is implemented in the temporal voice areas (TVA), the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) and the precentral gyrus (PCG). The simultaneous presentation of congruent facial and vocal expressions elicited distinct activity patterns across most regions, highlighting that multisensory inputs reshape brain responses relative to unisensory stimulation across the entire face and voice brain network. These findings suggest that face and voice-selective regions broadly encode emotion expressions within and even across the senses, relying on a multisensory gradient that converges in temporo-frontal regions where their distributed multisensory responses align to create a supramodal representation of specific emotion expressions.

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bioRxiv2025

Ocular speech tracking persists in blindness, but its dynamics and oculo-cerebral connectivity depend on visual status

While eye movements have been shown to track the speech envelope, it is unknown whether this reflects a hard-wired mechanism or one shaped by (lifetime) audiovisual experience. Further, questions remain about whether ocular tracking is modulated by speech intelligibility and which brain regions drive these synchronized eye movements. Here, we investigate ocular speech tracking in blindfolded early blind, late blind, and sighted individuals using magnetoencephalography (MEG) and source-reconstructed oculomotor signals while participants listened to narrative speech of varying intelligibility. We found that oculomotor activity tracks acoustic speech features and, unlike neural speech tracking, is not modulated by intelligibility. Interestingly, we found effects reflected in two frequency-specific components: a low-frequency ([~]1 Hz) effect present across all groups, indicating that visual experience is not required, and a high-frequency ([~]6 Hz) effect reduced in early- and late-blind individuals. Moreover, this finding is not driven by cerebro-ocular connectivity, as late-blind individuals exhibit stronger connectivity between the eyes and the left temporal cortices without a corresponding increase in ocular tracking. In conclusion, ocular speech tracking seems to respond selectively to acoustic but not to intelligibility features of speech, and it does not require visual experience to develop. It may thus represent a hard-wired oculomotor mechanism within the oculo-cerebral network involved in speech processing. Significance StatementEye movements provide a unique window into the interaction between auditory and visual systems. By studying early blind, late blind, and sighted individuals, we demonstrate that speech-related eye movements arise from at least two distinct mechanisms: a low-frequency component that occurs independently of (lifetime) visual experience and is linked to processing of acoustic speech features, and a high-frequency component shaped by prior visual exposure. Importantly, speech intelligibility - unlike its impact on neural measures - does not modulate these ocular responses. This dissociation suggests that eye movements reflect mechanisms of spoken language processing that are independent of intelligibility, thereby revealing novel pathways of auditory-motor coupling and broadening our understanding of sensory integration in the absence of vision.

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bioRxiv2025

Multifaceted brain representation of numerosity across the senses and presentation formats

Humans can extract numerosity from different senses and a variety of context. How and where the brain abstract numerical information from low-level sensory inputs remains debated. Using multivariate pattern decoding and representational similarity analysis applied to fMRI data, we comprehensively investigate how the brain represents numerical information (range 2-5) across different modalities (auditory, visual) and presentation formats (sequential, simultaneous; symbolic, non-symbolic). We identify a set of brain regions along the dorsal pathway-from early visual cortex to the intraparietal and frontal regions-that encode specific non-symbolic numerical information across formats and modalities. The numerical distance effect, a hallmark of magnitude encoding, was observed in most of these regions. We found aligned representation of numerical information across visual and auditory modalities in intraparietal and frontal regions, but only when they shared a sequential presentation format. Maintaining a distinction between spatial and temporal numerical representations may thus be a fundamental aspect of numerical processing. RSA further revealed a posterior-to-anterior gradient in the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) showing that the dominant factors influencing distributed numerical representations shifted from sensory modality in the posterior parietal regions to presentation format in the anterior parietal areas. Our study reveals a multifaceted brain representation of numerosity across the senses and presentation formats.

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bioRxiv2025

Two senses, one rhythm: Pre- and post-stimulus neural states predict perceived audio-visual synchrony

How does the brain integrate or segregate multiple sensory inputs? In our study, we used magnetoencephalography to comprehensively investigate local and network dynamics before and after the presentation of sequences of beeps and flashes that are sometimes perceived as synchronous or asynchronous. Frequency-tagging and spectral analysis revealed that under identical physical conditions, subjective perceptual fusion of multisensory signals elicits stronger evoked sensory responses in both visual and auditory cortices. Crucially, perceptual fusion is preceded by locally reduced pre-stimulus alpha activity, as well as enhanced functional connectivity between auditory and visual cortices within the pre-stimulus gamma activity. We also show that pre-stimulus neuronal states in the occipital cortex predict post-stimulus sensory responses to auditory sequences in the temporal cortex, but not the opposite. The current findings provide evidence that the perceptual fusion of multisensory events relate to a complex interplay between local and inter-sensory neuronal states before and after stimulus presentation. Significance StatementHow does the brain blend information from multiple sensory systems into one holistic perception? We developed a novel frequency-tagging paradigm in Magnetoencephalography (MEG) to robustly estimate the sensory responses to a series of flashes and beeps in early sensory areas, and to demonstrate how these responses are shaped by ongoing fluctuations in local, and long-range network activity. By combining the steady-state method with spectral, and functional connectivity analysis of ongoing oscillations in source space, the current study provides novel insights into the relationship between internal brain states and the way we perceive multisensory events.

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bioRxiv2025

Association between Cortical Thickness and Functional Response to Linguistic Processing in the Occipital Cortex of Early Blind Individuals

Blindness has been shown to induce changes in the structural and functional organization of the brain. However, few studies have investigated the relationship between these structural and functional changes. In this study, we examined cortical thickness within occipital regions of interest in 38 early blind individuals and explored its relationship to functional activation during linguistic processing. Participants engaged in tactile Braille reading and auditory processing tasks involving words, pseudowords, and control conditions to assess various aspects of linguistic processing. Linear mixed models revealed a significant association between cortical thickness and functional activation in the occipital cortex during linguistic tasks. Specifically, lower cortical thickness in the middle occipital gyrus, the calcarine sulcus, and the parieto-occipital sulcus were linked to increased activation during orthographic processing in blind participants (Braille pseudowords vs. Braille nonsense-symbols). Similarly, lower cortical thickness in the calcarine sulcus and parieto-occipital sulcus was associated with greater functional activation during phonological processing (auditory pseudowords vs. auditory control). These findings align with prior research suggesting that structural and functional adaptations in the visual cortex of blind individuals may be influenced by developmental mechanisms such as pruning or myelination. This study highlights the interplay between cortical structure and functional reorganization in the blind brain.

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bioRxiv2025

Aligned representation of visual and tactile motion directions in hMT+/V5 and fronto- parietal regions

Moving events on the skin can be perceived through vision and touch. How does the brain create a unified multisensory representation of motion directions initially acquired in different coordinate systems? We show that the middle occipito-temporal region (hMT+/V5), along with a fronto-parietal network, encodes visual and tactile directions using a common external frame of reference independent of body posture. We characterized brain activity using fMRI in participants exposed to directional visual and tactile motion stimuli across different hand postures. We demonstrate that individually and functionally defined hMT+/V5 shows univariate preference for both visual and tactile motion and encodes motion directions across hand postures. Unlike somatosensory regions, information about tactile directions was enhanced in right hMT+/V5 when mapped using an external as compared to a somatotopic frame of reference. Crossmodal decoding showed that tactile directions defined in an external frame of reference, but not a somatotopic one, align with the representation of visual directions in the right hMT+/V5 (both in MT and MST). A whole brain searchlight group analysis confirmed these individually defined regions-of-interest results and extended the presence of an aligned visual-tactile code for directional motion in external space to the parietal and frontal cortex. Our findings reveal a brain network involving hMT+/V5 that encodes motion directions in vision and touch using a common external frame of reference.

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bioRxiv2025

Atypical functional connectome in congenitally blind humans

The human cortex is organized along continuous functional gradients that capture systematic transitions in functional connectivity across the brain. These gradients describe large-scale organizational principles, including hierarchical transitions from unimodal to transmodal regions. Here, we provide the first characterization of cortical gradients in a large sample of congenitally blind (n = 41) and sighted (n = 44) adults to assess the relative contributions of intrinsic (genetic) and experiential factors to cortical gradient organization. Using resting-state fMRI, we compared functional connectome gradients and their association with cortical structure. Both groups exhibited similar principal gradients: unimodal to transmodal, somatosensory to visual, and frontoparietal segregation, demonstrating that the fundamental scaffold of cortical organization emerges largely independently of visual experience. However, blindness altered specific features of the functional connectome: the visual network was more segregated from the sensorimotor network and more integrated with transmodal and frontoparietal networks. Moreover, blind individuals showed reduced canonical hierarchical ordering within early visual areas, weaker structure-function coupling in visual and temporal regions, and altered functional areal boundaries in V1. These findings suggest that the development of large-scale cortical gradients reflects a genetically guided scaffold that is subsequently refined by sensory experience.

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bioRxiv2024

Impact of a transient neonatal visual deprivation on the development of the ventral occipito-temporal cortex in humans

How does experience shape the development of visual brain regions? We demonstrate that a transient period of visual deprivation early in life in humans leads to permanent alteration in the function of the early visual cortex (EVC), while leaving the categorical coding of downstream ventral occipito-temporal cortex (VOTC) mostly unaffected. We used fMRI to characterize the brain response to five categories (faces, bodies, objects, buildings and words) in a rare group of cataract-reversal individuals who experienced a transient period of blindness early in life, and in matched participants with typical visual development. We show that the encoding of low-level visual properties is impaired in EVC in cataract-reversal participants, while the categorical response in the VOTC is preserved. When altering the visual properties of our stimuli to mimic in controls the deficit of EVC response of the cataract, we observe a cascading alteration of the categorical coding from EVC to VOTC that is not observed in the cataract-reversal group. Our results show that a typical visual categorical organization develops in VOTC despite a period of visual deprivation early in life and in the presence of impaired processing in EVC. A deep neural network exposed to a visual diet that emulates the experience of our participants reproduced our brain observations within an artificial system. These findings emphasize how specific visual regions are differently affected by a period of visual deprivation early in life, with information encoded in EVC being permanently affected, while the categorical coding in VOTC shows resilience to deprivation.

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bioRxiv2024

Characterizing dynamic functional connectivity in congenitally blind people using Hidden Markov Models

How sensory experience shapes the organization of the human brain connectome remains a central question in neuroscience. Previous studies of congenital blindness have primarily relied on stationary functional connectivity, potentially overlooking how sensory deprivation affects the temporal reconfiguration of large-scale brain networks. Here, we investigated dynamic functional connectivity in blindness by comparing resting-state fMRI data from sighted (n = 50) and early blind individuals (n = 33) using a data-driven hidden Markov model approach. Early blind individuals exhibited increased fractional occupancy of two brain states characterized by bilateral somatomotor and left-lateralized occipito-frontal networks, whereas sighted participants more frequently occupied a state dominated by default mode and ventral attention networks. Connectivity states preferentially expressed by sighted participants showed reduced visual-somatomotor coupling in blind individuals, while states more frequently visited by early blind participants exhibited enhanced connectivity within the visual network and between occipital, fusiform, and prefrontal regions. Critically, the hyperconnectivity in blindness was largely explained by altered state occupancy, indicating that temporal dynamics, rather than connectivity patterns per se, drive reorganization. Beyond temporal dynamics, visual deprivation altered the spatial organization of functional gradients derived from model-based, state-specific connectivity: occipital regions shifted closer to transmodal networks, while the overall low-dimensional geometry of latent states remained largely preserved. This suggests that early visual deprivation selectively reshapes the temporal expression and functional embedding of brain states without altering the core scaffold of large-scale dynamics. Together, these findings demonstrate that blindness reshapes both the temporal and spatial structure of large-scale brain networks, highlighting the chronnectome as a critical substrate of experience-dependent plasticity. Significance StatementBlindness provides a unique opportunity to understand how the human brain reorganizes in the absence of typical sensory experience. Previous studies have relied on stationary functional connectivity, overlooking the role of temporal network dynamics. Using a data-driven Hidden Markov Model approach applied to resting-state fMRI, we show that early visual deprivation primarily alters the temporal dynamics of brain states. Crucially, the hyperconnectivity classically observed in early blind individuals emerges from changes in state occupancy rather than intrinsic alterations of connectivity patterns. Beyond temporal effects, we also demonstrate that visual deprivation reshapes functional gradients, with occipital regions shifting toward transmodal systems. Together, these findings reveal the chronnectome as a key mechanism of experience-dependent plasticity, while preserving a robust large-scale organizational scaffold.

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bioRxiv2024

Phonological representations of auditory and visual speech in the occipito-temporal cortex and beyond

Speech is a multisensory signal that can be extracted from the voice and the lips. Previous studies suggested that occipital and temporal regions encode both auditory and visual speech features but their precise location and nature remain unclear. We characterized brain activity using fMRI (in male and female) to functionally and individually define bilateral Fusiform Face Areas (FFA), the left Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), an audio-visual speech region in the left Superior Temporal Sulcus (lSTS) and control regions in bilateral Para-hippocampal Place Areas (PPA). In these regions, we performed multivariate patterns classification of corresponding phonemes (speech sounds) and visemes (lip movements). We observed that the VWFA and lSTS represent phonological information from both vision and sounds. The multisensory nature of phonological representations appeared selective to the anterior portion of VWFA, as we found viseme but not phoneme representation in adjacent FFA or even posterior VWFA, while PPA did not encode phonology in any modality. Interestingly, cross-modal decoding revealed aligned phonological representations across the senses in lSTS, but not in VWFA. A whole-brain cross-modal searchlight analysis additionally revealed aligned audio-visual phonological representations in bilateral pSTS and left somato-motor cortex overlapping with oro-facial articulators. Altogether, our results demonstrate that auditory and visual phonology are represented in the anterior VWFA, extending its functional coding beyond orthography. The geometries of auditory and visual representations do not align in the VWFA as they do in the STS and left somato-motor cortex, suggesting distinct multisensory representations across a distributed phonological network. Significance statementSpeech is a multisensory signal that can be extracted from the voice and the lips. Which brain regions encode both visual and auditory speech representations? We show that the Visual Word Form Area (VWFA) and the left Superior Temporal Sulcus (lSTS) both process phonological information from speech sounds and lip movements. However, while the lSTS aligns these representations across the senses, the VWFA does not, indicating different encoding mechanisms. These findings extend the functional role of the VWFA beyond reading. An additional whole-brain approach reveals shared representations in bilateral superior temporal cortex and left somato-motor cortex, indicating a distributed network for multisensory phonology.

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bioRxiv2024

Widespread neural reorganization related to expertise in reading visual Braille

Learning to read assigns linguistic value to an abstract visual code. Whether regions of the reading network tune to visual properties common to most scripts or code for more abstracted units of language remains debated. Here we investigate this question using visual Braille, a script developed for touch that does not share the typical explicit shape information of other alphabets, yet maps onto the same phonology and lexicon as other more regular scripts. First, we compared univariate responses in visual Braille readers and a naive control group and found that individually localized Visual Word Form Area (VWFA) was selectively activated for visual Braille when compared to scrambled Braille only in expert Braille readers. Multivariate analyses showed that linguistic properties can be decoded from Latin script in both groups and from Braille script in expert readers in an extended network of brain regions including the early visual cortex (V1), the lateral occipital region (LO), the VWFA and the left Posterior Temporal area (l-PosTemp). These results suggest that the tuning of an extended reading network to orthography relies more on the linguistic content of the script rather than their specific visual features (e.g. line junctions). Nevertheless, cross-scripts generalization was significantly lower than within-script decoding and failed to reveal common representations across Latin and Braille in experts in all regions except the l-PosTemp. These results suggest that V1, LO and VWFA encode orthographic representations in a script-specific manner, whereas l-PosTemp encodes abstracted linguistic information.

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bioRxiv2024

The mechanisms and neural signature of average numerosity perception

The human brain is endowed with an intuitive sense of number allowing to perceive the approximate quantity of items in a scene, or "numerosity." This ability is not limited to items distributed in space, but also to events unfolding in time and to the average numerosity of dynamic scenes. How the brain computes and represents the average numerosity over time however remains mostly unclear. Here we investigate the mechanisms and electrophysiological (EEG) signature of average numerosity perception. To do so, we used dynamic stimuli composed of 3-12 arrays presented for 50 ms each, and asked participants to judge the average numerosity of the sequence. Our results first show that the weight of different arrays in the sequence in determining the judgement is subject to both primacy and recency effects, depending on the length of the sequence. Moreover, we show systematic perceptual adaptation effects across trials, with the bias on numerical estimates depending on both the average numerosity and length of the preceding stimulus. The EEG results show numerosity-sensitive brain responses starting very early after stimulus onset, and that activity around the offset of the sequence can predict both the accuracy and precision of judgments. Additionally, we show a neural signature of the adaptation effect at around 300 ms, whereby the amplitude of brain responses can predict the strength of the bias. Overall, our findings support the existence of a dedicated, low-level perceptual mechanism involved with the computation of average numerosity, and highlight the processing stages involved with such process.

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