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bioRxiv2025

Human Attitudes Toward Insects and Spiders: Exploring the Paradoxes of Ecological Value and Discomfort

Insects, with over a million species, are important to ecosystems, contributing to pollination, nutrient cycling, and pest control, yet public perceptions often lean negative due to fear, disgust, or cultural influences. The study explores human attitudes toward insects via a 17-question Google Forms survey, finding consistent perceptions across demographics, except for education level, which impacts ecological awareness and tolerance. A notable exception was the belief that all insects are harmful, which varied significantly by age, and gender differences in handling dangerous insects. Principal Component Analysis identified three key dimensions--environmental awareness, demographic influences, and emotional responses-- explaining 38% of the variance. The findings highlight paradoxes in public views, such as recognizing insects ecological value while expressing discomfort with their presence. Education emerges as a critical factor in fostering positive attitudes, suggesting targeted campaigns could bridge knowledge gaps and promote coexistence with these essential creatures.

scientific communication and education↗

bioRxiv2025

Microbial Diversity and Ecological Structure of the Gut Microbiota in Children and Adults from an Indigenous Mexican Community

Gut microbiota composition is shaped by environmental factors such as lifestyle, diet, socioeconomic and cultural context, as well as host-related factors like age and sex. Although microbiota research has expanded rapidly in recent years, most current paradigms are based on data from individuals in high-income, industrialized countries, particularly in Europe and North America. As a result, microbiota profiles from non-Westernized populations--especially those from Indigenous communities--remain underrepresented in global studies, limiting our understanding of the full ecological and evolutionary diversity of human gut microbial communities. In this study, we characterized the bacterial gut microbiota of Mephaa individuals, a pre-Columbian Indigenous group from the south-central region of Mexico. This rural community maintains a subsistence lifestyle centered on high-fiber, plant-based diets and limited exposure to industrialized foods. Using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing, we analyzed microbial profiles from 62 individuals aged 5 to 60 years, examining differences across age and sex to explore patterns of diversity and community structure. Despite sharing similar life conditions, noticeable differences in gut microbiota were observed; alpha and beta diversities revealed significant variation across age and sex. Children exhibited greater microbial richness and inter-individual variability, consistent with dynamic colonization processes that begin in early life. In contrast, adults showed more taxonomically uniform communities, with a higher abundance of taxa such as Prevotellaceae, Succinivibrio, and Dialister, which are associated with fiber fermentation and complex carbohydrate metabolism. Additionally, sex-related differences were evident, with adult males displaying the highest relative abundance of Prevotellaceae. Finally, the presence of taxonomic groups rarely observed in urban Western populations suggests that indigenous lifestyles may preserve microbial diversity with potential metabolic relevance. Our findings advance the ecological and evolutionary understanding of human gut microbiota and highlight the importance of integrating non-Westernized populations into microbiome research to better elucidate host-microbe coadaptation and its implications for health.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2025

Intrinsic Reproductive Isolation among Ecologically Divergent Anolis Lizards

The evolution of reproductive isolation lies at the core of our modern concept of species. Despite this central importance, study of the evolution of reproductive isolation is largely limited to a set of laboratory amenable species. When shallowly divergent populations are associated with different habitats, extrinsic isolation is often assumed to play a major role. Because this type of isolation is environmentally mediated it can be ephemeral, for instance, if habitats change in response to climate. In contrast, intrinsic isolation is heritable and therefore loss of this type of isolation requires genetic changes in one or both populations. We performed a hybridization and backcross experiment to test for and characterize intrinsic reproductive isolation between two recently diverged, ecologically differentiated populations of Anolis lizards. We find evidence of substantial intrinsic isolation that appears to operate at the postmating, prezygotic phase. Our findings suggest that intrinsic isolation may play a substantial role in the maintenance of shallow, yet ecologically divergent, lineages.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2025

New Finnlakevirus isolate FLiP-2 provides insight into the ecology of ssDNA phages in Flavobacterium hosts

Life cycle details or ecological impact are well characterized only for a few ssDNA phages. The Finnlakeviridae family includes one species, Finnlakevirus FLiP. Here, using the same Flavobacterium host and sampling location, we isolated a new strain designated FLiP-2, with 96,7 % genetic identity to the original isolate FLiP. To understand the ecology of this Flavobacterium-infecting phage species, we explored the host interactions of the two FLiP strains and a dsDNA Flavobacterium phage MaF61 under various conditions representing those encountered in their natural habitats in boreal lakes including different temperatures, anoxic conditions, and in the presence of different nutrients and antibiotics. While FLiP and FLiP-2 had similar virion stability outside the host, they exhibited significant differences in plaque morphology and infectivity. FLiP-2 could not replicate in the presence of ampicillin, whereas FLiP thrived even at high concentrations. Both strains of Finnlakevirus FLiP propagated better under or after stress exposure compared to MaF61. Additionally, Finnlakevirus FLiP plaques appeared far from the original infection site, particularly in response to stress, suggesting latent presence within a motile or filamentous bacterium. In conclusion, Finnlakevirus FLiP showed remarkable flexibility in host-interactions being well adapted to fluctuating conditions in boreal freshwaters.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2025

Population genomics highlight the vulnerability of coral-dwelling gobies to ecological losses due to climatic disturbances

Predicting species resilience to climate change generally focuses on species life history and ecology, overlooking genomic changes following disturbances. After consecutive cyclones and heatwaves, coral-dwelling Gobiodon gobies have experienced extreme population and group size reductions, and slower recovery rates than their coral hosts. To assess genomic contributions to this vulnerability, we analyzed multiple Gobiodon species for population structure (1) among three locations in western Oceania and (2) pre- and post-disturbances at the central location that underwent the same cyclones and heatwaves that reduced populations and group sizes. Species compared among locations all exhibited population structure. Post-disturbances, two species (G. fuscoruber, G. rivulatus) were extirpated, two species (G. histrio, G. quinquestrigatus) exhibited genetic bottlenecks, one species had no change to genetic diversity (G. brochus), and another species had consistently low diversity (G. erythrospilus). Our results highlight that coral-dwelling gobies face compounding ecological and genomic losses from climatic disturbances, warranting targeted conservation.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2025

A One Health study of Klebsiella pneumoniae species complex plasmids shows a highly diverse and ecologically adaptable plasmidome

Plasmids play a pivotal role in the horizontal gene transfer of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and virulence determinants among bacteria. Members of the Klebsiella pneumoniae species complex (KpSC) can colonise humans, animals, and various environments, and frequently cause nosocomial and community-acquired infections in humans. While plasmid-borne AMR genes are prevalent in clinical strains, the diversity, distribution, and association of plasmids encoding AMR and virulence across ecological niches remain poorly characterised. Understanding the traits governing successful plasmid transmission within and between ecological niches is critical for developing effective AMR prevention strategies. Here, we characterise the diversity and distribution of KpSC plasmids and identify potential niche associations of AMR, heavy metal resistance, virulence factors, and plasmid clusters. We analysed the plasmidome (i.e. total genetic content attributable to plasmids) of 578 whole-genome sequenced KpSC isolates collected in Norway between 2001-2020 from human (n=453), terrestrial animal (n=102), and marine (n=23) sources. Plasmids from complete hybrid assemblies were annotated and clustered to evaluate the plasmid diversity and content across niches. Additionally, the representativeness of this plasmid collection was determined by clustering with a global collection of 8656 circularised KpSC plasmids. In total, 1415 circularised plasmids were identified and grouped according to rearrangement distance using Pling, resulting in 130 clusters (containing >1 plasmid), of which 36% (n=47) contained plasmids from >1 niche. The plasmids exhibited significant diversity, as 37% (n=524) remained singletons after clustering. AMR and virulence genes existed across diverse clusters and singletons, but predominantly resided on 120-250 kbp conjugative or mobilisable plasmids harbouring various transposable elements. The human niche exhibited a significantly higher prevalence of plasmids with AMR genes compared to animal or marine niches (p<0.001), whereas the animal niche displayed a significantly higher prevalence of virulence-encoding plasmids compared to human or marine niches (p<0.001), which was largely due to an enrichment of iuc3 plasmids in pigs. The high diversity of the KpSC plasmids underscores the dynamic nature of plasmid evolution, driven by horizontal gene transfer, and selective pressures. The presence of variable clusters, marked by high genetic diversity, indicates a dynamic plasmidome capable of rapid adaptation to environmental pressures through the acquisition and rearrangement of accessory genes.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2025

Ecological constraints foster both extreme viral-host lineage stability and mobile element diversity in a marine community

Phages are typically viewed as very rapidly evolving biological entities. Little is known, however, about whether and how phages can establish long-term genetic stability. We addressed this eco-evolutionary question in an open marine animal associated system, through two longitudinal samplings years apart in an oyster farm, obtaining >1,000 virulent phages and >600 Vibrio crassostreae strains. Surprisingly, lineages of phage and bacteria were very persistent, with some phages remaining strictly identical after four years. The phage-vibrio infection network remained modular with multiple lineages co-habitating within individual oysters for long periods of time. Seasonal restriction of V. crassostreae, overwintering in wild oysters, and limited viral decay may explain phage stability. Oysters also act as hotspots of activity of diverse mobile genetic element (MGE), hosting plasmids, prophages, phage-plasmids and entirely new classes of satellite-plasmids. Our findings demonstrate how nested ecological constraints can stabilize viral lineages: oysters house vibrio populations that escape host immunity, vibrios restrict phages via receptors and defenses, and satellites parasitize their cognate helper phages. We suggest that ecological context can favor the long-term maintenance of viral lineages and stabilize MGE persistence in the ocean, even amid ongoing mutation and antagonistic co-evolution.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2025

Ecological cues orchestrate concerted courtship in a Drosophila host specialist

Mating decisions are often attributed to the sensory signaling between prospective sexual partners. Yet these interactions are also shaped by the broader environmental context in which they unfold, to appropriately align sexual arousal with reproductive opportunities. Here we show that in the host specialist Drosophila erecta mating is strictly contingent on the ecological and social environment generated as flies densely aggregate in groups on a food patch. We find that food volatiles directly promote male sexual arousal, triggering individuals to sample and pursue potential mates, giving rise to dynamic interactions across the group. The ensuing visual motion transforms each males visual field, which in turn further amplifies his arousal, generating a multisensory feedback loop that coordinately promotes courtship across individuals. D. erectas strict dependence on environmental cues appears latent in related species, such as D. melanogaster, where food odor can promote arousal but is dispensable for vigorous courtship. Comparative circuit analyses reveal that species-specific thresholds for sexual arousal reflect variation in how olfactory input modulates conserved nodes controlling courtship drive, rendering food volatiles a strict sensory gate only in D. erecta. Together, our findings highlight how ecological cues not directly tied to sexual signaling can profoundly influence reproductive behavior and reorganize the social landscape to ensure mating occurs in contexts where reproductive opportunities are abundant.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2025

Song complexity in suboscine birds: evolutionary drivers and ecological constraints

Acoustic signal complexity varies widely in the animal kingdom for reasons that remain unclear. In birds, it is widely proposed that vocal complexity evolves as an honest signal of individual quality driven by sexual selection. Other hypotheses related to social interactions include competition for ecological resources (social selection) and intra-group communication in group- living animals, both of which may favour signal complexity. However, these hypotheses are rarely explored at macroevolutionary scales, particularly in the context of constraints on sound production, transmission and detection, leading to ongoing uncertainty about the evolutionary origins of complex vocal signals. Using Bayesian phylogenetic models, we test whether different forms of social communication and ecological constraints predict the temporal and spectral complexity of songs in 1,288 species of suboscine passerine birds. We found that song complexity was reduced by sexual selection, along with other limiting factors including large body size and dense vegetation. Conversely, territoriality boosted the temporal complexity of songs. These findings challenge the common assumption that sexual selection is the main driver of increased signal complexity, and instead highlight the role of social selection as a key component of multiple inter-related drivers and constraints.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2025

Viral diversity, ecological interconnectedness, and the identification of mammalian chuviruses in Australian microbats

Microbats are a large and ecologically important group of Australian mammalian fauna. However, their RNA virome diversity, as well as its ecological and evolutionary significance, has received limited study. We applied a metatranscriptomic approach to reveal more of the diversity of RNA viruses present in faeces from different microbat species in New South Wales and South Australia, including the critically endangered Southern bent-wing bat (Miniopterus schreibersii bassanii) from the Naracoorte bat maternity caves in South Australia. The data generated revealed a high diversity of RNA viruses, including 51 likely mammalian-associated viruses classified into ten taxonomic groups, including the Coronaviridae, Hepeviridae and Chuviridae. Notably, we identified a mammalian-specific lineage of chuviruses associated with bats in Australia and of bats and rodents in China, strongly suggesting that viruses of this family have established sustained transmission cycles in mammals as well as invertebrates. Our results also revealed widespread viral connectivity among alphacoronaviruses across multiple microbat species in mainland Australia and Christmas Island, indicative of long distance viral movement. High viral diversity and virus co-circulation was observed within the Southern bent-wing bat population of the Naracoorte caves, suggesting complex population dynamics that might facilitate virus maintenance and transmission. Overall, these findings highlight the role of Australian microbats as viral reservoirs, including the presence of viruses not previously associated with sustained mammalian transmission.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2017

Recombination of ecologically and evolutionarily significant loci maintains genetic cohesion in the Pseudomonas syringae species complex

Pseudomonas syringae is a highly diverse bacterial species complex capable of causing a wide range of serious diseases on numerous agronomically important crop species. Here, we examine the evolutionary relationships of 391 agricultural and environmental strains from the P. syringae species complex using whole-genome sequencing and evolutionary genomic analyses. Our collection includes strains from 11 of the 13 previously described phylogroups isolated off of over 90 hosts. We describe the phylogenetic distribution of all orthologous gene families in the P. syringae pan-genome, reconstruct the phylogeny of P. syringae using a core genome alignment and a hierarchical clustering analysis of pan-genome content, predict ecologically and evolutionary relevant loci, and establish the forces of molecular evolution operating on each gene family. We find that the common ancestor of the species complex likely carried a Rhizobium-like type III secretion system (TTSS) and later acquired the canonical TTSS. The phylogenetic analysis also showed that the species complex is subdivided into primary and secondary phylogroups based on genetic diversity and rates of genetic exchange. The primary phylogroups, which largely consist of agricultural isolates, are no more divergent than a number of other bacterial species, while the secondary phylogroups, which largely consists of environmental isolates, have levels of diversity more in line with multiple distinct species within a genus. An analysis of rates of recombination within and between phylogroups revealed a higher rate of recombination within primary phylogroups than between primary and secondary phylogroups. We also found that \"ecologically significant\" virulence-associated loci and \"evolutionary significant\" loci under positive selection are over-represented among loci that undergo inter-phylogroup genetic exchange. These results indicate that while inter-phylogroup recombination occurs relatively rarely in the species complex, it is an important force of genetic cohesion, particularly among the strains in the primary phylogroups. This level of genetic cohesion and the shared plant-associated niche argues for considering the primary phylogroups as a true biological species.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2017

Archaeal community structure and underlying ecological processes in swine manure slurry

The ecological processes underlying the observed patterns in community composition of archaea in swine manure slurry are poorly understood. We studied the archaeal communities from six swine manure slurry storage tanks using paired-end Illumina sequencing of the v3 hypervariable region of 16S rRNA gene. Across all samples, the archaeal community was dominated by methanogens related to Thermoplasmata, Methanomicrobia, and Methanobacteria classes. At the genus level, the archaeal community was dominated by a single uncultured lineage of archaea, vadinCA11, followed by methanogenic genera Methanobrevibacter, Methanosarcina, Methanosphaera, Methanogenium, Methanocorpusculum, Methanoculleus, and Methanomicrococcus. Significant phylogenetic signals were detected across relatively short phylogenetic distances, indicating that closely related archaeal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) tend to have similar niches. The standardized effect sizes of mean nearest taxon distance (SES.MNTD) showed that archaeal community was phylogenetically clustered, suggesting that environmental filtering deterministically influence the within-community composition of archaea. However, between-community analysis based on {beta}-nearest taxon index ({beta}NTI) revealed that both deterministic selection and stochastic processes operate simultaneously to govern the assembly of archaeal communities. These findings significantly enhance our understanding of archaeal community assembly and underlying ecological processes is swine manure slurry.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2017

The ecological genetics of Pseudomonas syringae residing on the kiwifruit leaf surface

Interactions between commensal microbes and invading pathogens are understudied, despite their likely effects on pathogen population structure and infection processes. We describe the population structure and genetic diversity of a broad range of co-occurring Pseudomonas syringae isolated from infected and uninfected kiwifruit during an outbreak of bleeding canker disease caused by P. syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) in New Zealand. Overall population structure was clonal and affected by ecological factors including infection status and cultivar. Most isolates are members of a new clade in phylogroup 3 (PG3a), also present on kiwifruit leaves in China and Japan. Stability of the polymorphism between pathogenic Psa and commensal P. syringae PG3a isolated from the same leaf was tested using reciprocal invasion from rare assays in vitro and in planta. P. syringae G33C (PG3a) inhibited Psa NZ54, while the presence of Psa NZ54 enhanced the growth of P. syringae G33C. This effect could not be attributed to virulence activity encoded by the Type 3 secretion system of Psa. Together our data contribute toward the development of an ecological perspective on the genetic structure of pathogen populations.\n\nORIGINALITY-SIGNIFICANT STATEMENTBacterial pathogen populations are often studied with little consideration of co-occurring microbes and yet interactions between pathogens and commensals can affect both population structure and disease progression. A fine-scale sampling of commensals present on kiwifruit leaves during an outbreak of bleeding canker disease caused by P. syringae pv. actinidiae reveals a clonal population structure. A new clade of non-pathogenic P. syringae (PG3a) appears to be associated with kiwifruit on a global scale. The presence of PG3a on kiwifruit has significant effects on the outcome of infection by P. syringae pv. actinidiae. This emphasises the value of studying the effect of co-occurring bacteria on pathogen-plant interactions.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2018

Ecological advantages and evolutionary limitations of aggregative multicellular development

All multicellular organisms develop through one of two basic routes: they either aggregate from free-living cells, creating potentially-chimeric multicellular collectives, or they develop clonally via mother-daughter cellular adhesion. While evolutionary theory makes clear predictions about trade-offs between these developmental modes, these have never been experimentally tested in otherwise genetically-identical organisms. We engineered unicellular bakers yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to develop either clonally ( snowflake, {Delta}ace2), or aggregatively ( floc, GAL1p::FLO1), and examined their fitness in a fluctuating environment characterized by periods of growth and selection for rapid sedimentation. When cultured independently, aggregation was far superior to clonal development, providing a 35% advantage during growth, and a 2.5-fold advantage during settling selection. Yet when competed directly, clonally-developing snowflake yeast rapidly displaced aggregative floc. This was due to unexpected social exploitation: snowflake yeast, which do not produce adhesive FLO1, nonetheless become incorporated into flocs at a higher frequency than floc cells themselves. Populations of chimeric clusters settle much faster than floc alone, providing snowflake yeast with a fitness advantage during competition. Mathematical modeling suggests that such developmental cheating may be difficult to circumvent; hypothetical choosy floc that avoid exploitation by maintaining clonality pay an ecological cost when rare, often leading to their extinction. Our results highlight the conflict at the heart of aggregative development: non-specific cellular binding provides a strong ecological advantage - the ability to quickly form groups - but this very feature leads to its exploitation.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Ecological selection for small microbial genomes along a temperate-to-thermal soil gradient

Small bacterial and archaeal genomes provide insights into the minimal requirements for life1 and seem to be widespread on the microbial phylogenetic tree2. We know that evolutionary processes, mainly selection and drift, can result in microbial genome reduction 3,4. However, we do not know the precise environmental pressures that constrain genome size in free-living microorganisms. A study including isolates 5 has shown that bacteria with high optimum growth temperatures, including thermophiles, often have small genomes 6. It is unclear how well this relationship may extend generally to microorganisms in nature 7,8, and in particular to those microbes inhabiting complex and highly variable environments like soil 3,6,9. To understand the genomic traits of thermally-adapted microorganisms, here we investigated bacterial and archaeal metagenomes from a 45{degrees}C gradient of temperate-to-thermal soils overlying the ongoing Centralia, Pennsylvania (USA) coal seam fire. There was a strong relationship between average genome size and temperature: hot soils had small genomes relative to ambient soils (Pearsons r = -0.910, p < 0.001). There was also an inverse relationship between soil temperature and cell size (Pearsons r = -0.65, p = 0.021), providing evidence that cell and genome size in the wild are together constrained by temperature. Notably, hot soils had different community structures than ambient soils, implicating ecological selection for thermo-tolerant cells that had small genomes, rather than contemporary genome streamlining within the local populations. Hot soils notably lacked genes for described two-component regulatory systems and antimicrobial production and resistance. Our work provides field evidence for the inverse relationship between microbial genome size and temperature requirements in a diverse, free-living community over a wide range of temperatures that support microbial life. Our findings demonstrate that ecological selection for thermophiles and thermo-tolerant microorganisms can result in smaller average genome sizes in situ, possibly because they have small genomes reminiscent of a more ancestral state.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2018

Ecological patterns are robust to use of exact sequence variants versus operational taxonomic units

Recent controversy focuses on the best method for delineating microbial taxa, based on either traditional operational taxonomic units (OTUs) or exact sequence variants (ESVs) of marker gene sequences. We sought to test if the binning approach (ESVs versus OTUs) affected the ecological conclusions of a large field study. The dataset included sequences of both bacteria (16S) and fungi (ITS), across multiple environments diverging markedly in abiotic conditions, over three collection times. Despite quantitative differences in microbial richness, we found that all alpha- and beta-diversity metrics were highly positively correlated (r > 0.90) between samples analyzed with both approaches. Moreover, the community composition of the dominant taxa did not vary between approaches. Consequently, statistical inferences were nearly indistinguishable. Thus, we conclude that for typical alpha- and beta-diversity analyses, OTU or ESV methods will likely reveal similar ecological results and determining which method to employ will depend on the question at hand.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2018

Recent demographic histories and genetic diversity across pinnipeds are shaped by anthropogenic interactions and mediated by ecology and life-history

A central paradigm in conservation biology is that population bottlenecks reduce genetic diversity and negatively impact population viability and adaptive potential. In an era of unprecedented biodiversity loss and climate change, understanding both the determinants and consequences of bottlenecks in wild populations is therefore an increasingly important challenge. However, as most studies have focused on single species, the multitude of potential drivers and the consequences of bottlenecks remain elusive. Here, we used a comparative approach by integrating genetic data from over 11,000 individuals of 30 pinniped species with demographic, ecological and life history data to elucidate the consequences of large-scale commercial exploitation by 18th and 19th century sealers. We show that around one third of these species exhibit strong genetic signatures of recent population declines, with estimated bottleneck effective population sizes reflecting just a few tens of surviving individuals in the most extreme cases. Bottleneck strength was strongly associated with both breeding habitat and mating system variation, and together with global abundance explained a large proportion of the variation in genetic diversity across species. Overall, there was no relationship between bottleneck intensity and IUCN status, although three of the four most heavily bottlenecked species are currently endangered. Our study reveals an unforeseen interplay between anthropogenic exploitation, ecology, life history and demographic declines, sheds new light on the determinants of genetic diversity, and is consistent with the notion that both genetic and demographic factors influence population viability.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Ecological genetic conflict between specialism and plasticity through genomic islands of divergence

There can be genetic conflict between genome elements differing in transmission patterns, and thus in evolutionary interests. We show here that the concept of genetic conflict provides new insight into local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity. Local adaptation to heterogeneous habitats sometimes occurs as tightly linked clusters of genes with among-habitat polymorphism, referred to as genomic islands of divergence, and our work sheds light on their evolution. Phenotypic plasticity can also influence the divergence between ecotypes, through developmental responses to habitat-specificcues. We show that clustered genes coding for ecological specialism and unlinked generalist genes coding for phenotypic plasticity differ in their evolutionary interest. This is an ecological genetic conflict, operating between habitat specialism and phenotypically plastic generalism. The phenomenon occurs both for single traits and for syndromes of co-adapted traits. Using individual-based simulations and numerical analysis, we investigate how among-habitat genetic polymorphism and phenotypic plasticity depend on genetic architecture. We show that for plasticity genes that are unlinked to a genomic island of divergence, the slope of a reaction norm will be steeper in comparison with the slope favored by plasticity genes that are tightly linked to genes for local adaptation.

evolutionary biology↗