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Search indexed bioRxiv preprints in genomics, neuroscience, cell biology and bioinformatics. Read source abstracts and check manuscript versions; preprints are not peer reviewed.

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bioRxiv2018

Bicoid gradient formation mechanism and dynamics revealed by protein lifetime analysis

Embryogenesis relies on instructions provided by spatially organized signaling molecules known as morphogens. Understanding the principles behind morphogen distribution and how cells interpret locally this information remains a major challenge in developmental biology. Here we introduce morphogen-age measurements as a novel approach to retrieve key parameters in morphogen dynamics. Using a tandem fluorescent timer (tFT) as a protein-age sensor we find a gradient of increasing age of Bicoid (Bcd) along the anterior-posterior (AP) axis in the early Drosophila embryo. Quantitative analysis retrieves parameter that are most consistent with the synthesis-diffusion-degradation (SDD) model underlying Bcd-gradient formation, and rule out some other hypotheses for gradient formation. Moreover, we show that the timer can detect transitions in the dynamics associated with syncytial cellularization. Our results provide new insight into Bcd gradient formation, and demonstrate how morphogen age-information can complement knowledge about movement, abundance and distribution, which should be widely applicable for other systems.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2017

Neurogenic decisions require a cell cycle independent function of the CD25B phosphatase

A fundamental issue in developmental biology and in organ homeostasis is understanding the molecular mechanisms governing the balance between stem cell maintenance and differentiation into a specific lineage. Accumulating data suggest that cell cycle dynamics plays a major role in the regulation of this balance. Here we show that the G2/M cell cycle regulator CDC25B phosphatase is required in mammals to finely tune neuronal production in the neural tube. We show that in chick neural progenitors, CDC25B activity is both required and sufficient to stimulate neurogenic divisions and to promote neuronal differentiation. We design a mathematical model showing that within a limited period of time, cell cycle length modifications cannot account for changes in the ratio of the mode of division. Using a CDC25B point mutation that cannot interact with CDK, we show that part of CDC25B activity on neurogenic divisions is independent of its action on the cell cycle.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2015

A Branching Process to Characterize the Dynamics of Stem Cell Differentiation

The understanding of the regulatory processes that orchestrate stem cell maintenance is a cornerstone in developmental biology. Here, we present a mathematical model based on a branching process formalism that predicts average rates of proliferative and differentiative divisions in a given stem cell population. In the context of vertebrate spinal neurogenesis, the model predicts complex non-monotonic variations in the rates of pp, pd and dd modes of division as well as in cell cycle length, in agreement with experimental results. Moreover, the model shows that the differentiation probability follows a binomial distribution, allowing us to develop equations to predict the rates of each mode of division. A phenomenological simulation of the developing spinal cord informed with the average cell cycle length and division rates predicted by the mathematical model reproduces the correct dynamics of proliferation and differentiation in terms of average numbers of progenitors and differentiated cells. Overall, the present mathematical framework represents a powerful tool to unveil the changes in the rate and mode of division of a given stem cell pool by simply quantifying numbers of cells at different times.

Developmental Biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Quantitative study of the somitogenetic wavefront in zebrafish

A quantitative description of the molecular networks that sustain morphogenesis is one of the challenges of developmental biology. Specifically, a molecular understanding of the segmentation of the antero-posterior axis in vertebrates has yet to be achieved. This process known as somitogenesis is believed to result from the interactions between a genetic oscillator and a posterior-moving determination wavefront. Here we quantitatively study and perturb the network in zebrafish that sustains this wavefront and compare our observations to a model whereby the wavefront is due to a switch between stable states resulting from reciprocal negative feedbacks of Retinoic Acid (RA) on the activation of ERK and of ERK on RA synthesis. This model quantitatively accounts for the near linear shortening of the post-somitic mesoderm (PSM) in response to the observed exponential decrease during somitogenesis of the mRNA concentration of a morphogen (Fgf8). It also accounts for the observed dynamics of the PSM when the molecular components of the network are perturbed. The generality of our model and its robustness allows for its test in other model organisms.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2016

A gene regulatory network for apical organ neurogenesis and its spatial control in sea star embryos.

How neural stem cells generate the correct number and type of differentiated neurons in appropriate places is an important question in developmental biology. Although nervous systems are diverse across phyla, many taxa have a larva that forms an anterior concentration of neurons, or apical organ. The number of neurons in these organs is highly variable. We show that neurogenesis in the sea star larvae begins with soxc-expressing multipotent progenitors. These give rise to restricted progenitors that express lhx2/9. Soxc- and lhx2/9-expressing cells are capable of undergoing both asymmetric divisions, which allow for progression towards a particular neural fate, and symmetric proliferative divisions. Nested concentric domains of gene expression along the anterior-posterior (AP) axis, which have been observed in a great diversity of metazoans, control neurogenesis in the sea star by promoting particular division modes and progression towards becoming a neuron. This work, therefore, explains how spatial patterning in the ectoderm controls progression of neurogenesis. Modification to the sizes of these AP territories provides a simple mechanism to explain the diversity of neuron number found among apical organs.\n\nSummary StatementThe progression of apical organ neurogenesis in the sea star is controlled by regulatory anterior-posterior patterning domains.

Developmental Biology↗

bioRxiv2017

Microfluidic Immobilization And Subcellular Imaging Of Developing Caenorhabditis elegans

C. elegans has been an essential model organism in the fields of developmental biology, neuroscience, and aging. However, these areas have been limited by our ability to visualize and track individual C. elegans worms, especially at the subcellular scale, over the course of their lifetime. Here we present a microfluidic device to culture individual C. elegans in parallel throughout post-embryonic development. The device allows for periodic mechanical immobilization of the worm, enabling 3D imaging at subcellular precision. The immobilization is sufficient to enable fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) measurements on organelles and other substructures within the same specific cells, throughout larval development, without the use of chemical anesthetics. Using this device, we measure FRAP recovery of two nucleolar proteins in specific intestinal cells within the same worms during larval development. We show that these exhibit different fluorescence recovery as they grow, suggesting differential protein interactions during development. We anticipate that this device will help expand the possible uses of C. elegans as a model organism, enabling its use in addressing fundamental questions at the subcellular scale, including the role of phase transitions in driving spatiotemporal intracellular organization within multicellular organisms.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Electroporation of short hairpin RNAs for rapid and efficient gene knockdown in the starlet sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis

A mechanistic understanding of evolutionary developmental biology requires the development of novel techniques for the manipulation of gene function in phylogenetically diverse organismal systems. Recently, gene-specific knockdown by microinjection of short hairpin RNA (shRNA) has been applied in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, a cnidarian model organism. Due to the unusual architecture of the cnidarian microRNA processing pathway, the shRNA approach is unusually effective for sequence-specific knockdown of a gene of interest. However, the time- and labor-intensive process of microinjection limits access to this technique and its application in large scale experiments. To address this issue, here we present an electroporation protocol for shRNA delivery into Nematostella eggs. This method leverages the speed and simplicity of electroporation, enabling users to manipulate gene expression in hundreds of Nematostella eggs or embryos within minutes. We provide a detailed description of the experimental procedure, including reagents, electroporation conditions, preparation of Nematostella vectensis eggs, and follow-up care of experimental animals. Finally, we demonstrate the knockdown of several endogenous and exogenous genes with known phenotypes and discuss the potential applications of this method.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2017

Placeholder nucleosomes underlie germline-to-embryo DNA methylation reprogramming

The fate and function of epigenetic marks during the germline-to-embryo transition is a key issue in developmental biology, with relevance to stem cell programming and trans-generational inheritance. In zebrafish, DNA methylation (DNAme) patterns are programmed in transcriptionally-quiescent cleavage embryos; remarkably, paternally-inherited patterns are maintained, whereas maternal patterns are reprogrammed to match the paternal. Here we provide the mechanism, by demonstrating that Placeholder nucleosomes, containing histone H2A variant H2A.Z(FV) and H3K4me1, occupy virtually all regions lacking DNAme in both sperm and cleavage embryos, and resides at promoters encoding housekeeping and early embryonic transcription factors. Upon genome-wide transcriptional onset, genes with Placeholder become either active (H3K4me3) or silent (H3K4me3/K27me3). Importantly, functional perturbation causing Placeholder loss confers DNAme accumulation, whereas acquisition/expansion of Placeholder confers DNA hypomethylation and improper gene activation. Thus, during transcriptionally-quiescent gametic and embryonic stages, an H2A.Z(FV)/H3K4me1-containing Placeholder nucleosome deters DNAme, poising parental genes for either gene-specific activation or facultative repression.\n\nHighlights: four, 85 characters eachO_LIPlaceholder nucleosomes bear H3K4me and the histone variant H2A.Z(FV)\nC_LIO_LIPlaceholders occupy all DNA hypomethylated loci in zebrafish sperm and early embryos\nC_LIO_LIAt ZGA, Placeholders resolve into either active or poised (bivalent) nucleosomes\nC_LIO_LIPlaceholder localization excludes DNAme, and regulates embryonic transcription\nC_LI

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2017

Repeated co-option of a conserved gene regulatory module underpins the evolution of the crustacean carapace, insect wings and other flat outgrowths

Summary statementThe genes vestigial, scalloped and wingless comprise a conserved regulatory module that was co-opted repeatedly for the evolution of flat structures, such as insect wings, and crustacean carapace, tergites and coxal plates.\n\nSummaryHow novelties arise is a key question in evolutionary developmental biology. The crustacean carapace is a novelty that evolved in the early Cambrian. In an extant crustacean, Daphnia magna, the carapace grows from the body wall as a double-layered sheet with a specialized margin. We show that the growing margin of this carapace expresses vestigial, scalloped and wingless, genes that are known to play key roles in regulating growth at the insect wing margin. RNAi-mediated knockdown of scalloped and wingless impair carapace development, indicating that carapace and wing might share a common mechanism for margin outgrowth. However, carapace and wings arise in different parts of the body and their margins have different orientations, arguing that these structures have independent evolutionary origins. We show that scalloped is also expressed at the margin of unrelated flat outgrowths (tergites and coxal plates) in the distantly related crustacean Parhyale hawaiensis. Based on these observations, we propose that the vestigial-scalloped-wingless gene module has a common role in the margin of diverse flat structures, originating before the divergence of major crustacean lineages and the emergence of insects. Repeated co-option of this module occurred independently in the carapace, wing and other flat outgrowths, underpinning the evolution of distinct novelties in different arthropod lineages.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Morphological, cellular and molecular characterization of posterior regeneration in the marine annelid Platynereis dumerilii

Regeneration, the ability to restore body parts after an injury or an amputation, is a widespread but highly variable and complex phenomenon in animals. While having fascinating scientists for centuries, fundamental questions about the cellular basis of animal regeneration as well as its evolutionary history remain largely unanswered. We study regeneration of the marine annelid Platynereis dumerilii, an emerging comparative developmental biology model, which, like many other annelids, displays important regenerative abilities. If the posterior part of the body is amputated, P. dumerilii worms are able to regenerate the posteriormost differentiated part of the body and stem cell-rich growth zone that allows to make new segments which replace the amputated ones. We show that posterior regeneration is a rapid process that follows a well reproducible paths and timeline, going through specific stages that we thoroughly defined. Wound healing is achieved by one day post-amputation and a regeneration blastema forms one day later. At this time point, some tissue specification already occurs, and a functional posterior growth zone is re-established as early as three days after amputation. Regeneration is only influenced in a minor manner by worm size and position of the amputation site along the antero-posterior axis of the worm and regenerative abilities persist upon repeated amputations without important alterations of the process. We also show that intense cell proliferation occurs during regeneration and that cell divisions are strictly required for regeneration to normally proceed. Finally, through several 5-ethynyl-2-deoxyuridine (EdU) pulse and chase experiments, we provide evidence in favor of a local origin of the blastema, whose constituting cells mostly derive from the segment immediately abutting the amputation plane. The detailed characterization of P. dumerilii posterior body regeneration presented in this article provides the foundation for future mechanistic and comparative studies of regeneration in this species.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2018

A Fasciclin 2 functional switch controls organ size in Drosophila

How cell to cell interactions control local tissue growth to attain a species-specific pattern and organ size is a central question in developmental biology. The Drosophila Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule, Fasciclin 2 (Drosophila NCAM), is expressed during the development of neural and epithelial organs. Genetic mosaic analysis of Fasciclin 2 reveals two complementary and opposing functions during imaginal disc growth, a cell autonomous requirement to promote growth and an opposite non-cell autonomous function to restrain growth at high expression levels. This non-cell autonomous function is mediated by the Fasciclin 2 heterophilic-binding partners CG15630 and CG33543. We show that EGFR physically interacts with Fasciclin 2 and mediates both the cell autonomous and the non-cell autonomous function. We further show that EGFR activity in turn promotes the cell autonomous expression of Fasciclin 2. We suggest that the auto-stimulatory loop between EGFR and Fasciclin 2 operates until reaching a threshold where the Fasciclin 2 non-cell autonomous function counteracts the growth-promoting activity of the homophilic interaction to terminate imaginal disc growth. Accordingly, we have found that Fasciclin 2 limits imaginal disc growth by the end of larval development. Cellular integration of Fasciclin 2 autonomous and non-cell autonomous signaling from neighbor cells may be a key regulator component to orchestrate the rate of intercalary cell proliferation and the final size of an organ.\n\nAuthor SummaryOne of the key unsolved problems in Biology is how a species-specific size is attained during animal development. During development cells should compute the amount of intercalary tissue growth to stop cell proliferation when reaching a correct pattern and size. Classic studies demonstrated that local cell interactions are key in controlling organ growth to reach a correct size and pattern in vertebrates and invertebrates. We present evidence strongly suggesting that Fasciclin 2 (the ortholog of NCAM in Drosophila) functions as a growth level switch to control pattern and organ size. First, we use genetic mosaic analyses to show that Fasciclin 2 promotes organ growth in a cell autonomous manner. Then we show that Fasciclin 2 restrains growth at high expression levels in a non-cell autonomous manner, and that there is a requirement for Fasciclin 2 to limit growth by the end of larval development. This function is dependent on Fasciclin 2 heterophilic binding partners CG15630 and CG33543. The Epidermal Growth Factor receptor mediates both functional facets of Fasciclin 2 and its activity in turn increases Fasciclin 2 cell autonomous expression, suggesting the existence of a functional auto-stimulatory loop. We also show that the Epidermal Growth Factor receptor and Fasciclin 2 physically interact. Our results show that the amount of Fasciclin 2 between cells determines organ size by acting as an expression level switch for EGFR function, and suggest that other specific CAM interactions may integrate similar expression level switches acting as a code for cells to compute local growth in attaining a species-specific organ size and shape.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Asymmetric histone incorporation during DNA replication in Drosophila male germline stem cells

One Sentence SummaryDNA replication establishes asymmetric epigenomes SummaryOne of the most fundamental questions in developmental biology concerns how cells with identical genomes differentiate into distinct cell types. One important context for understanding cell fate specification is asymmetric cell division, where the two daughter cells establish different cell fates following a single division. Many stem cells undergo asymmetric division to produce both a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating daughter cell1-5. Here we show that histone H4 is inherited asymmetrically in asymmetrically dividing Drosophila male germline stem cells, similar to H36. In contrast, both H2A and H2B are inherited symmetrically. By combining superresolution microscopy with the chromatin fiber method, we are able to study histone inheritance patterns on newly replicated chromatin fibers. Using this technique, we find asymmetric inheritance patterns for old and new H3, but symmetric inheritance patterns for old and new H2A on replicating sister chromatids. Furthermore, co-localization studies on isolated chromatin fibers and proximity ligation assays on intact nuclei reveal that old H3 are preferentially incorporated by the leading strand while newly synthesized H3 are enriched on the lagging strand. Finally, using a sequential nucleoside analog incorporation assay, we detect a high incidence of unidirectional DNA replication on germline-derived chromatin fibers and DNA fibers. The unidirectional fork movement coupled with the strand preference of histone incorporation could explain how old and new H3 are asymmetrically incorporated by replicating sister chromatids. In summary, our work demonstrates that the intrinsic asymmetries in DNA replication may help construct sister chromatids enriched with distinct populations of histones. Therefore, these results suggest unappreciated roles for DNA replication in asymmetrically dividing cells in multicellular organisms.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2017

High-throughput live-imaging of embryos in microwell arrays using a modular, inexpensive specimen mounting system

Live-imaging embryos in a high-throughput manner is essential for shedding light on a wide range of questions in developmental biology, but it is difficult and costly to mount and image embryos in consistent conditions. Here, we present OMMAwell, a simple, reusable device that makes it easy to mount up to hundreds of embryos in arrays of agarose microwells with customizable dimensions and spacing. OMMAwell can be configured to mount specimens for upright or inverted microscopes, and includes a reservoir to hold live-imaging medium to maintain constant moisture and osmolarity of specimens during time-lapse imaging. All device components can be cut from a sheet of acrylic using a laser cutter. Even a novice user will be able to cut the pieces and assemble the device in less than an hour. At the time of writing, the total materials cost is less than five US dollars. We include all device design files in a commonly used format, as well as complete instructions for its fabrication and use. We demonstrate a detailed workflow for designing a custom mold and employing it to simultaneously live-image dozens of embryos at a time for more than five days, using embryos of the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus as an example. Further, we include descriptions, schematics, and design files for molds that can be used with 14 additional vertebrate and invertebrate species, including most major traditional laboratory models and a number of emerging model systems. Molds have been user-tested for embryos including zebrafish (Danio rerio), fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), coqui frog (Eleutherodactylus coqui), annelid worm (Capitella teleta), amphipod crustacean (Parhyale hawaiensis), red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), and three-banded panther worm (Hofstenia miamia), as well mouse organoids (Mus musculus). Finally, we provide instructions for researchers to customize OMMAwell inserts for embryos or tissues not described herein.\n\nSummary StatementThis Techniques and Resources article describes an inexpensive, customizable device for mounting and live-imaging a wide range of tissues and species; complete design files and instructions for assembly are included.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2018

A comprehensive reference transcriptome resource for the Iberian ribbed newt Pleurodeles waltl, an emerging model for developmental and regeneration biology

Urodele amphibian newts have unique biological properties, notably including prominent regeneration ability. Iberian ribbed newt, Pleurodeles waltl, is a promising model newt along with the successful development of the easy breeding system and efficient transgenic and genome editing methods. However, genetic information of P. waltl was limited. In the present study, we conducted an intensive transcriptome analysis of P. waltl using RNA-sequencing to build gene models and annotate them. We generated 1.2 billion Illumina reads from a wide variety of samples across 11 different tissues and 9 time points during embryogenesis. They were assembled into 202,788 non-redundant contigs that appear to cover nearly complete (~98%) P. waltl protein-coding genes. Using the gene set as a reference, our gene network analysis identified regeneration-, developmental-stage-, and tissue-specific co-expressed gene modules. Ortholog analyses with other vertebrates revealed the gene repertoire evolution of amphibians which includes urodele-specific loss of bmp4 and duplications of wnt11b. Our transcriptome resource will enhance future research employing this emerging model animal for regeneration research as well as other areas such as developmental biology, stem cell biology, cancer research, ethology and toxico-genomics. These data are available via our portal website, iNewt (http://www.nibb.ac.jp/imori/main/).

genomics↗

bioRxiv2017

Forces driving cell sorting in Hydra

Cell sorting, whereby a heterogeneous cell mixture organizes into distinct tissues, is a fundamental patterning process in development. So far, most studies of cell sorting have relied either on 2-dimensional cellular aggregates, in vitro situations that do not have a direct counterpart in vivo, or were focused on the properties of single cells. Here, we report the first multiscale experimental study on 3-dimensional regenerating Hydra aggregates, capable of reforming a full animal. By quantifying the kinematics of single cell and whole aggregate behaviors, we show that no differences in cell motility exist among cell types and that sorting dynamics follow a power law. Moreover, we measure the physical properties of separated tissues and determine their viscosities and surface tensions. Based on our experimental results and numerical simulations, we conclude that tissue interfacial tensions are sufficient to explain Hydra cell sorting. Doing so, we illustrate DArcy Thompsons central idea that biological organization can be understood through physical principles, an idea which is currently re-shaping the field of developmental biology.\n\nSummary statementHydra regenerates after dissociation into single cells. We show how physical mechanisms can explain the first step of regeneration, whereby ectodermal and endodermal cells sort out to form distinct tissue layers.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2016

Integrating ecological genomics and eco-evo-devo reveals multiple adaptive peaks in ant populations of the Arizona Sky Islands

Uncovering the genetic basis of adaptation is one of the greatest challenges facing modern evolutionary biology, often sparking much controversy, especially among practitioners within different subfields. Here we ask where is the locus of adaptation from the perspective of ecological genomics (ecogen) and evolutionary developmental biology (evodevo). Ecogen focuses on identifying loci under selection between populations living in different environments by scanning genome-wide patterns of genetic divergence, while evodevo focuses on candidate developmental regulatory genes and networks underlying phenotypic differences between species and higher taxa. We attempt to reconcile these alternative perspectives by studying the response of ant populations to past climate change on the Arizona Sky Islands, which are high elevation mountain ranges that represents a replicated natural experiment. We previously showed that adaptation to climatic changes in the Arizona Sky Islands in ant species Monomorium emersoni occurred through repeatable changes within the gene network underlying the development of dispersal alternative phenotypes: winged and wingless queens. Here, we uncover several loci under positive selection which associate with habitat temperature, a pattern consistent with a predictable and repeated increase in frequency following climatic changes on each of the Sky Islands. Furthermore, we show that gene flow between locations within a Sky Island is not a consequence of dispersal phenotypes and its gene network, but rather, is restricted by temperature adaptation along the ecological gradient. This suggests that the determination of winged and wingless queens may be developmentally plastic, and this plasticity and may facilitate jumps between adaptive peaks on the fitness landscape. This complex interplay promotes predictability on both genetic and phenotypic levels for multiple traits in the same species.

Evolutionary Biology↗

bioRxiv2018

Combination of novel and public RNA-seq datasets to generate an mRNA expression atlas for the domestic chicken

BackgroundThe domestic chicken (Gallus gallus) is widely used as a model in developmental biology and is also an important livestock species. We describe a novel approach to data integration to generate an mRNA expression atlas for the chicken spanning major tissue types and developmental stages, using a diverse range of publicly-archived RNA-seq datasets and new data derived from immune cells and tissues.\n\nResultsRandomly down-sampling RNA-seq datasets to a common depth and quantifying expression against a reference transcriptome using the mRNA quantitation tool Kallisto ensured that disparate datasets explored comparable transcriptomic space. The network analysis tool Miru was used to extract clusters of co-expressed genes from the resulting expression atlas, many of which were tissue or cell-type restricted, contained transcription factors that have previously been implicated in their regulation, or were otherwise associated with biological processes, such as the cell cycle. The atlas provides a resource for the functional annotation of genes that currently have only a locus ID. We cross-referenced the RNA-seq atlas to a publicly available embryonic Cap Analysis of Gene Expression (CAGE) dataset to infer the developmental time course of organ systems, and to identify a signature of the expansion of tissue macrophage populations during development.\n\nConclusionExpression profiles obtained from public RNA-seq datasets - despite being generated by different laboratories using different methodologies - can be made comparable to each other. This meta-analytic approach to RNA-seq can be extended with new datasets from novel tissues, and is applicable to any species.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2018

Microinjection into the Caenorhabditis elegans embryo using an uncoated glass needle enables cell lineage visualization and reveals cell-non-autonomous adhesion control

Microinjection is a useful method in cell biology, with which exogenous substances are introduced into a cell in a location- and time-specific manner. The Caenorhabditis elegans embryo is an important model system for cell and developmental biology. Applying microinjection to the C. elegans embryo had been difficult due to the rigid eggshell surrounding the embryo. In 2013, microinjection method using a carbon-coated quartz needle for the C. elegans embryo was reported. To prepare the needle, unfortunately, special equipment is required and thus a limited number of researchers can use this method. In this study, we established a method for the microinjection of drugs, dyes, and microbeads into the C. elegans embryo using an uncoated glass needle that can be produced in a general laboratory. This method enabled us to easily detect cell lineage up to adult stages by injecting a fluorescent dye into a blastomere. We also found a cell-non-autonomous control mechanism of cell adhesion; specifically, the injection of an actin inhibitor into one cell at the 2-cell stage enhanced adhesion between daughter cells of the other cell. Our microinjection method is expected to be used for broad studies and could facilitate various discoveries using C. elegans.

cell biology↗