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bioRxiv · 10.64898/2026.11.02.763483

A timeline for evolution of metabolism in early microbes

Hackmann, T.
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Abstract

The metabolism of early microbes shaped our planet's chemistry and enabled more life to evolve. However, it remains uncertain when many forms of metabolism arose and which organisms carried them out. Here we combine machine learning, metabolic networks, and phylogenomics of microbes to date 14 forms of metabolism and 6 other traits. We find that metabolism evolved in three waves, starting >3.4 billion years ago (Ga) with fermentation and sulfur compound respiration. A second wave began ~3.2 Ga with aerobic respiration and growth, while a third began ~1.4 Ga with further specialization. We compared these predictions with independent dates from the geochemical record, and agreement with conservative dates was good (CCC = 0.81 to 0.89). Several forms of metabolism are invisible in the geochemical record, and our approach dates these forms, too. Our results reconcile different lines of evidence for microbial evolution and provide a fuller picture of early Earth.

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Hackmann, T.. 2026-11-05. A timeline for evolution of metabolism in early microbes. https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.11.02.763483

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