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bioRxiv · 10.64898/2026.10.13.757892

Artefact-free EEG during temporal interference stimulation reveals phase-specific modulation of the human visual cortex

Rhodes, E.·Deegan, T.·Alania, K.·Borella, J.·Sabathy, M.·Capstick, M.·Kuster, N.·Howard, J.·Bono, D.·Grossman, N.
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Abstract

Background: Temporal interference (TI) stimulation applies kHz electric fields whose envelope is modulated at a difference frequency ({Delta}f), allowing non-invasive deep-brain targeting. Measuring the neural response during stimulation with EEG is essential for establishing mechanisms and for closed-loop control. However, non-linearities in the recording chain mix the kHz carriers, producing an artefact at exactly {Delta}f. Objectives: To establish a method for recording EEG during TI without the {Delta}f artefact, and to test whether TI modulates neural activity at {Delta}f. Methods: A front-end analogue low-pass filter (7th order; 90 Hz cut-off; [≥]130 dB attenuation at 1 kHz) was bench-tested. In 22 healthy participants, residual artefact was assessed per recording with a two-stage detection pipeline in stimulation-only blocks. TI targeted the right primary visual cortex at 10 or 15.5 Hz, in-phase or anti-phase with multi-frequency photic stimulation (4.5, 10, 15.5 Hz), during a choice reaction time task. Results: The filter suppressed the {Delta}f artefact below the noise floor on a resistive load. In vivo, residual artefact was confirmed in two participants and could not be excluded in two more; all four were excluded from EEG analyses. Steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) amplitude at 11, 14.5 and 15.5 Hz predicted faster responses. In-phase 15.5 Hz TI increased SSVEP amplitude at 14.5 and 15.5 Hz and shortened response times relative to both sham and anti-phase TI, which did not differ from sham. Conclusions: With front-end filtering and per-recording verification, EEG can measure TI neuromodulation during stimulation and at {Delta}f, revealing phase-specific modulation of visual entrainment linked to behaviour.

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Rhodes, E., Deegan, T., Alania, K., Borella, J., Sabathy, M., Capstick, M., Kuster, N., Howard, J., Bono, D., Grossman, N.. 2026-10-19. Artefact-free EEG during temporal interference stimulation reveals phase-specific modulation of the human visual cortex. https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.13.757892

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