Anisogamy drives diverse patterns of sex-role divergence

Abstract

Male and female animals often differ remarkably in their reproductive behaviours, typified by competing males and caring females. One influential explanation traces sex-role divergence to anisogamy: sex differences in gamete size. This explanation remains controversial, because existing models have not fully resolved how anisogamy leads to secondary sex-role divergence, and exceptions to typical patterns are empirically well-documented. Here, we develop mathematical models linking anisogamy to secondary sex-role evolution, showing that anisogamy drives sex-role divergence along contrasting evolutionary trajectories depending on ecological context. When the sexes differ only in gamete size, male-biased mating competition and offspring care evolve under scramble competition, whereas uncertain paternity shifts the population towards typical patterns. By contrast, anisogamy generally drives typical sex roles under contest competition, although sex-role reversal can emerge as an alternative stable state when care must be apportioned among offspring. Anisogamy can thus explain the striking diversity of sex differences across taxa.