South American Plasmodium falciparum isolates reveal new insights into the role of PfAAT1 in mediating resistance to Chloroquine

Abstract

Antimalarial drug resistance remains one of the most significant challenges to global malaria control. The emergence of resistance to chloroquine, the first truly globally distributed antimalarial, has been extensively studied but is still not fully understood. While mutations in the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (PfCRT) primarily drive resistance, the phenotype is complex and multigenic, with mutations in the putative amino acid transporter PfAAT1 recently confirmed to play a modulatory role. To date studies have focused on PfAAT1 mutations found in African and Southeast Asian P. falciparum lineages, but chloroquine resistance emerged independently in South America, where there may be novel PfAAT1 polymorphisms that are functionally important. We used AlphaFold modelling to reveal high homology between PfAAT1 and the human lysosomal arginine transporter SLC38A9, which allows prediction of membrane orientation and identifies a partially open channel accessible from the cytoplasm. Several PfAAT1 mutations found only in South American isolates sit near the entrance of this pore, most notably V231 where mutation to aspartate is predicted to alter channel conformation and influence transport, while nearby P446A (which is always found in combination with V231D) and I248T are predicted to impact pore flexibility and local structural stability. To functionally validate these insights, we employed CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing across parasite strains with diverse geographic origins. Reverting the regional V231D mutation in the South American 7G8 strain significantly reduced CQ resistance, providing the first functional evidence that this residue modulates drug susceptibility. Furthermore, introducing the apparently Colombia-specific I248T mutation significantly enhanced parasite multiplication rates in 7G8, demonstrating complex fitness and sensitivity trade-offs. Our findings reinforce the distinct evolutionary trajectory for South American CQ resistance and highlight the necessity of including additional pfaat1 mutations in global molecular surveillance strategies. Author SummaryAntimalarial drug resistance is a major threat to global public health. Chloroquine was used widely in the 1950s-60s as part of a global malaria eradication campaign, but resistance emerged in multiple places independently and chloroquine resistant parasites directly led to the death of millions of children. Chloroquine resistance is primarily driven by mutations in the transporter PfCRT which are thought to increase export of chloroquine from the digestive vacuole, where chloroquine acts to prevent the ability of the parasite to digest haemoglobin as a source of energy. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that additional vacuolar transporters can also modulate chloroquine resistance. In this study we focused on mutations in the putative amino acid transporter 1 (PfAAT1) which are specific to South America, where chloroquine resistance emerged independently from Southeast Asia. By integrating AlphaFold structural predictions with CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing across geographically diverse parasite backgrounds we provide the first functional evidence that the region-specific V231D mutation significantly diminishes chloroquine resistance. These findings emphasise that chloroquine resistance in South America followed a unique trajectory and that PfAAT1 is involved in complex fitness and sensitivity trade-offs. This work emphasises the benefits of integrating diverse experimental and modelling approaches with global molecular surveillance.