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bioRxiv · 10.64898/2026.07.11.737897

Lytic bacteriophages against Salmonella Typhi as a potential alternative to antibiotics

Tandukar, S.·Shrestha, P.·Shrestha, M.·Shrestha, B.·Singh, A.·Tuladhar, R.·Shakya, J.
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Abstract

IntroductionEnteric fever, being endemic with seasonal peaks in low- and middle-income countries, is a major health concern. Moreover, the rise in antibiotic resistance has exacerbated the situation. This study was undertaken to investigate the lytic bacteriophages against Salmonella Typhi with a potential for phage therapy. Materials and MethodsA hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2023 to March 2024. Blood cultures were processed by the BACTEC automated culture system following standard microbiological techniques to isolate typhoidal Salmonella. Antibiotic susceptibility was tested by the modified Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. Lytic bacteriophages isolated by the double-layer agar method were assessed for their host range and lytic ability with spot and turbidimetric assays. ResultsOf the total 1054 blood specimens, 35 (3.2%) were positive for S. Typhi. All the isolates were susceptible to first-line antibiotics--ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and cotrimoxazole. The isolates were also sensitive to nalidixic acid (80%) as well as fluoroquinolones; ciprofloxacin (62.86%), levofloxacin (77.14%), and ofloxacin (80%). Fifteen lytic phages were isolated against S. Typhi Ty2 and CT18 strains. Four phages--vB_SaTy_ST2, vB_SaTy_ST7, vB_SaTy_ST17, and vB_SaTy_ST18--lysed all 35 clinical S. Typhi isolates. While vB_SaTy_ST17 and vB_SaTy_ST18 also lysed 7 out of 20 S. Paratyphi A isolates. Three phages (vB_SaTy_ST2, vB_SaTy_ST7, vB_SaTy_ST17) were tested against S. Typhi isolate S30. Individually, vB_SaTy_ST17 suppressed the growth for 13 hours, vB_SaTy_ST2 and vB_SaTy_ST7 for 10 hours. The phage cocktail vB_SaTy_ST2 + vB_SaTy_ST17 was the most effective, which extended the inhibition time to 15 hours. ConclusionThis study highlights the ongoing burden of enteric fever in Nepal and the increase in susceptibility of S. Typhi to nalidixic acid and fluoroquinolones. It also demonstrates the promising lytic potential of bacteriophages, particularly vB_SaTy_ST17 and the phage cocktail vB_SaTy_ST2 + vB_SaTy_ST17, against clinical S. Typhi, highlighting their potential as alternatives to antibiotics.

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Tandukar, S., Shrestha, P., Shrestha, M., Shrestha, B., Singh, A., Tuladhar, R., Shakya, J.. 2026-07-11. Lytic bacteriophages against Salmonella Typhi as a potential alternative to antibiotics. https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.07.11.737897

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