Amplitude-Modulated Kilohertz Stimulation Targeting Beta-Band Activity Disrupts Motor Learning

Abstract

Sensorimotor learning is associated with the modulation of neural rhythms in the primary motor cortex (M1). Beta-band activity ("beta"; 15-30 Hz) is suppressed during learning, while delta oscillations (1-4 Hz) become increasingly correlated with movement kinematics as skill improves. These observations have been complemented by experimental manipulations designed to perturb oscillatory activity with externally applied electric fields (E-fields). In non-human primates, invasive beta stimulation has been shown to disrupt motor learning whereas delta stimulation enhanced motor recovery in a stroke model. Causal evidence in humans remains limited, partly because established non-invasive methods cannot achieve continuous, narrowband E-fields at sufficient amplitude in the brain. To address this gap, we employed kilohertz transcranial magnetic perturbation (kTMP), a non-invasive magnetic induction technique that delivers continuous narrowband kilohertz E-fields which can be amplitude-modulated (AM) to target cortical rhythms. We applied AM-kTMP to test the functional relevance of beta and delta activity in human motor learning. In a double-blind mixed design, 40 participants performed a force-control task while receiving AM-kTMP at E-field amplitudes of 8 V/m in M1. We targeted either beta or delta, each paired with a sham condition. AM-kTMP influenced motor performance in a frequency-dependent manner: Beta-kTMP suppressed performance gains relative to both delta-kTMP and sham, whereas delta-kTMP showed no effect. These results suggest that increased beta activity in human M1 can interfere with motor learning. More broadly, kTMP offers a novel approach to probe frequency-specific cortical dynamics.