AMPKi overcomes the paradoxical activation of CRAF driven by RAF inhibitors through blocking the 14-3-3 binding to its carboxyl-terminus

Abstract

The paradoxical activation of RAF kinase is the predominant challenge in cancer therapies with RAF inhibitors. The inhibitor-bound RAF molecules are able to transactivate their wild-type binding partners. 14-3-3 that binds to the carboxyl-terminus of RAF kinase has been suggested to regulate the dimer-dependent activation of RAF kinase under physiological conditions, though the molecular basis is not clear. In this study, we investigated the role of 14-3-3 in the paradoxical effect of RAF inhibitors. Firstly, we found that the 14-3-3 binding to the carboxyl-terminus of CRAF was essential for its transactivation. Further, we demonstrated that this binding enhanced the dimer affinity of CRAF. Since 14-3-3 binds to the phosphorylated motif, we next investigated and identified AMPK and CRAF itself as two putative kinases that phosphorylate redundantly the 14-3-3 binding motif of CRAF. Among RAF isoforms, CRAF plays a dominant role in the paradoxical effect of RAF inhibitors, and we thus determined whether the combinatory inhibition of AMPK and CRAF would block this effect. Indeed, our data showed that AMPKi not only blocked the RAF inhibitor-driven paradoxical activation of RAF signaling and cellular overgrowth in Ras-mutated cancer cells but also reduced the drug-resistant clones derived from BRAF(V600E)-mutated cancer cells. Finally, we showed that the 14-3-3 binding to the carboxyl-terminus of CRAF was dispensable for its catalytic function in vivo. Together, our study unraveled how 14-3-3 regulates the dimerization-driven RAF activation and identified AMPKi as a potential method to relieve the drug resistance and side effect of RAF inhibitors in cancer therapy.