Electrophysiological Characteristics of Epidural Spinal Signals in Preclinical Models of Spinal Cord Stimulation

Ladner, K.; Versantvoort, E. M.; Thijssen, M. E.; Mugan, D.; Baker, S.; Kraskov, A.; SHARMA, M.; Bikson, M.; Dietz, B. E.; Palmisani, S.; Obara, I.

doi:10.1101/2025.09.03.674002

bioRxiv · 10.1101/2025.09.03.674002

Electrophysiological Characteristics of Epidural Spinal Signals in Preclinical Models of Spinal Cord Stimulation

Ladner, K.·Versantvoort, E. M.·Thijssen, M. E.·Mugan, D.·Baker, S.·Kraskov, A.·SHARMA, M.·Bikson, M.·Dietz, B. E.·Palmisani, S.·Obara, I.

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Abstract

ObjectivesEpidural stimulation of the spinal cord evokes distinct electrophysiological responses that can be recorded epidurally. Here, we characterized evoked compound action potentials (ECAPs), doublets (secondary or tertiary ECAPs, likely of different physiological origin than primary ECAPs), evoked synaptic activity potentials (ESAPs), and electromyographic (EMG) signals in preclinical models. Our objective was to clarify the features and distinct physiological origins of these signals, in order to advance mechanistic studies and support clinical applications of spinal cord stimulation (SCS) therapy. Materials and MethodsAdult male Sprague-Dawley rats (300-440 g) were implanted with two epidural leads (caudal and rostral; each with eight electrodes) and received monopolar, biphasic stimulation (200 s pulse width) at 2 and 50 Hz, with current increased stepwise to motor threshold. Rhesus macaques (11.5 and 10.2 kg) were implanted with a single 12-electrode epidural lead and stimulated using either tripolar, triphasic pulses at 10 Hz (100 s) or tripolar, biphasic pulses at 3 Hz (80 s) up to 3xECAP threshold. Recordings were taken from non-stimulating electrodes. ResultsECAPs and EMG signals were recorded across multiple spinal segments in both rats (L1-T7) and macaques (L2-T11). Doublets presented as complex waveforms with multiple negative peaks, two in rats and three in macaques, likely representing distinct ECAPs at T11-T6 in a rat and L1-T11 in macaques. ESAPs, detectable in rats, showed anatomical specificity, over the L1/T13 vertebrae with peak responses at L1. Signal analysis included activation thresholds, amplitudes, latencies, and conduction velocities. ConclusionsThis study outlines electrophysiological signals evoked by SCS in terms of their waveform, recruitment thresholds, and putative physiological origins. We propose that, to the extent these signals reflect different aspects of spinal processing and may serve as biomarkers of dysregulated nociceptive pathways, as well as indicators of SCS efficacy or potential side effects.

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Ladner, K., Versantvoort, E. M., Thijssen, M. E., Mugan, D., Baker, S., Kraskov, A., SHARMA, M., Bikson, M., Dietz, B. E., Palmisani, S., Obara, I.. 2025-09-03. Electrophysiological Characteristics of Epidural Spinal Signals in Preclinical Models of Spinal Cord Stimulation. https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.09.03.674002

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