Cognitive training effects are shaped more by individual brain dynamics than age - Evidence from younger and older women

Abstract

Given the well-established structural and functional changes in the aging brain, it is widely assumed that cognitive aging is primarily driven by robust group-level differences between young and older adults. However, our individual-level EEG functional connectivity analysis challenges this notion. We investigated the impact of cognitive training on functional brain connectivity using task-switching paradigms in 39 younger (18-25 years) and 40 older (60-75 years) women. Participants were randomly assigned to either a training group, which completed eight individualized one-hour cognitive training sessions, or a no-contact control group. EEG was recorded at both pre- and post-training sessions across three task-switching paradigms (trained and near-transfer versions). Unique functional connectivity of different sources of variation was examined by calculating how much variance was shared across stable traits (e.g., individual, age, and common factors), or dynamic states (e.g., task and training effects). Our results revealed that age accounted for only a modest proportion of variance, whereas self-similarity was a dominant factor - particularly in older adults. Similarly, group-level training effects were small but strongly modulated by individual neural profiles, suggesting person-specific trajectories. Participants recruited distinct neural networks across tasks, and even within the same task engaged unique, individual-specific network configurations, reflecting personalised brain adaptations to cognitive demands. Importantly, older adults displayed a shift from common to individual network patterns, consistent with increased neural specialization and compensatory mechanisms. These findings underscore the importance of moving beyond group-level contrasts toward models that capture the complexity of individual brain dynamics in cognitive aging and training responsiveness. Significance StatementWhy do cognitive training programs work for some individuals but not for others? And is aging really the main factor driving changes in brain function? Using individual-level EEG functional connectivity analyses, we show that individual differences - not chronological age, task, or training - are the primary drivers of similarity in brain connectomes. While training effects are modest on average, their impact strongly depends on the individuals unique neural profile. Older adults, in particular, rely more on personalized brain network configurations. These results help explain why cognitive training studies often yield inconsistent findings and point toward a more individualized approach to understanding and enhancing brain function across the lifespan.