Search bioRxiv⌕ Search
Home/Archive/bioRxiv

bioRxiv · 10.1101/2025.06.27.661689

Dispersal behavior rather than dispersal morphology creates social polymorphism in Formica ants

Hakala, S. M.·Belevich, I.·Jokitalo, E.·Seppa, P.·Helantera, H.
View original source ↗Export metadata ↓

Abstract

O_LIDispersal evolution and social evolution are interlinked. Dispersal is necessary for avoiding kin competition and inbreeding, but limited dispersal also allows beneficial social interactions with kin. In ants, a correlation between poor dispersal and complex societies, where a big proportion of queens are philopatric, is well documented, but the underlying causal mechanisms are not clear. C_LIO_LIIn this study we investigate the dispersal ability of six Formica species that vary in their colony queen number and nest founding mode, from three different subgenera. Investigating resource allocation in the bodies of young queens and males allows us to analyze the evolutionary causalities between dispersal ability and social organization. We measured the body ratios including wing-muscle ratio; glycogen, triglyceride and protein resources with colorimetric assays; and microscopic wing muscle structures with transmission electron microscopy, with an overall sample size of 1515 individual males and queens. C_LIO_LIOur results suggest that the physical condition of individuals does not strongly correlate with the dispersal patterns of the species, contrary to assumptions based on earlier studies in both ants and other insects. There was still a minor effect of social organization on male wing-muscle ratio, which is an interesting case of sexual coevolution of dispersal traits: it is likely that the queen philopatric behavior is reflected in male behavior and consequently in male morphology - even when our overall results support the hypothesis that ant dispersal is male biased regardless of social organization. Further, our intraspecific analyses in two of the six species reveal different patterns in their flight abilities in connection to their social organization, further pointing towards a mismatch between dispersal behavior and ability. C_LIO_LIIn Formica queens, philopatry seems to be a behavioral trait of the individuals rather than a consequence of colony-level resource allocation into dispersal ability, pointing towards a "behavior first" evolutionary route. The queens may selfishly choose not to disperse even when their society provides them with the resources for it. This raises new questions about conflicts over dispersal in these highly social systems. C_LI

Explore related subjects

evolutionary biologyPreprint

Keep this discovery

Explore connections, maps & timelines

BibTeXRIS

Hakala, S. M., Belevich, I., Jokitalo, E., Seppa, P., Helantera, H.. 2025-07-01. Dispersal behavior rather than dispersal morphology creates social polymorphism in Formica ants. https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.06.27.661689

Cite the original work for its findings. Save a collection to share your selection of sources.

KEEP EXPLORING

Related preprints

bioRxiv2026

RELAX does not reproduce its own estimates at default settings, and its output does not show it

Selection-intensity estimates from RELAX are reported as a point value of K with a likelihood-ratio P. We report that, at default settings and on data of ordinary size, the program does not reproduce its own fits. Of 27 enzyme entries refitted under two optimiser configurations, none reproduced its log-likelihood to within 0.01 units; the median change was 103 units, the largest over 3,400, and four verdicts reversed. Eighty null orthologues reproduced none. A byte-identical command returned a distinct likelihood on every repetition, single-threaded, across three releases, and on alignments simulated under the fitted model, where 3.3 per cent of replicates reproduced. The documented random-number seed never reaches the generator when assigned on the command line, yet reads back as the value supplied. PAML localises the cause: its two-ratio model, without site classes, reproduced its log-likelihood for all 288 genes; its site-class models agreed for 27 to 67 per cent. The instability follows the mixture over sites, not the program. The output does not show it: 46 of 410 fits ended with a negative likelihood-ratio statistic, impossible under convergence, and 123 of 410 report a K re-estimated under a domain restriction rather than the unconstrained maximum. Of 234 published studies using RELAX, none reported a seed. Seeding while holding the thread count at one reproduced sixty of sixty runs on twenty genes under two releases; the seed alone reproduced none of five, and no documentation states the second condition. We recommend that fits be repeated and their dispersion published.

evolutionary biology↗
bioRxiv2026

Sequential accumulation of adaptive alleles forms an inversion supergene in deer mice

Supergenes are clusters of co-inherited loci that affect multiple or complex phenotypes. Despite the growing number of chromosomal inversions identified as supergenes in natural populations, their molecular basis and evolutionary history often remain obscure. Here, we identified two candidate genes, Slc45a2 and Npr3, within a 41-Mb inversion supergene in the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) that respectively drive darker coats and longer tails - two traits associated with forest adaptation. Mice homozygous for the inversion (inv/inv) exhibit elevated Slc45a2 expression in melanocytes relative to the congenic standard genotype (std/std), disrupting pheomelanin production. In parallel, downregulation of Npr3 in inv/inv mouse growth plates prolongs postnatal growth of caudal vertebrae, resulting in tail elongation. Population-level analyses further implicate that this supergene arose through the subsequent accumulation of the Npr3 allele within the inversion, rather than by capturing all beneficial mutations at its origin.

evolutionary biology↗
bioRxiv2026

Toxin structure shapes palatability in a chemically defended butterfly

The toxicity of chemical defences is well studied, but the potential contribution of compound structure to predator deterrence remains largely unexplored. Whether predation acts more strongly on toxicity or unpalatability remains largely untested, partly because few systems allow toxin structure to vary independently of quantity. Heliconius sara larvae provide such a system: those reared on Passiflora auriculata sequester cyclopentenyl cyanogenic glucosides (CGs), while those reared on P. biflora biosynthesise comparable quantities of aliphatic CGs. Using two invertebrate predators, Camponotus floridanus ants and Hierodula membranacea mantids, we tested whether this structural difference affects palatability independent of toxicity. Mantids rejected larvae with cyclopentenyl CGs more often than larvae with aliphatic CGs, despite no detectable difference in total CG content. This pattern was mirrored in extract-based assays with ants, independently of cyanide release: extracts with cyclopentenyl CGs remained deterrent, while extracts with aliphatic CGs did not differ in deterrence from water. Live larvae, by contrast, elicited similar responses from ants regardless of CG structure. These results show that variation in toxin structure can strongly affect palatability, with some compounds conferring greater protection than others. This demonstrates the importance of chemical structural diversity in the evolution of chemical defences.

evolutionary biology↗