Biology subjects

Zhou, X.

Publications and source records attributed to Zhou, X..

At least 505 records · Page 28Linked to original sources

bioRxiv2021

Verbena officinalis L. regulates killing efficiency of natural killer cells

Natural killer (NK) cells play a key role in eliminating pathogen-infected cells. Verbena officinalis (V. officinalis) has been used as a medical plant in traditional and modern medicine, exhibiting anti-tumor and anti-inflammation activities, but its roles in immune responses still remains largely elusive. In this work, investigated the regulation of inflammation and NK functions by V. officinalis extract (VO-extract). In an influenza virus infection mouse model, oral administration of VO-extract alleviated lung injury, promoted maturation and activation of NK cells residing in the lung, and decreased the levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF- and IL-1{beta}) in the serum. We further analyzed the impact of five bioactive components of VO-extract on NK killing functions. Among them, Verbenalin enhanced NK killing efficiency significantly as determined by real-time killing assays based on plate-reader or high-throughput live-cell imaging in 3D using primary human NK cells. Further investigation showed that treatment of Verbenalin accelerated killing processes by reducing the contact time of NK cells with their target cells without affecting NK proliferation, expression of cytotoxic proteins, or lytic granule degranulation. Together, our findings reveal that low doses of V. officinalis can achieve a satisfactory anti-inflammation effect against viral infection in vivo, and V. officinalis regulates activation, maturation and killing functions of NK cells. NK killing efficiency is enhanced by Verbenalin from V. officinalis, suggesting a promising potential of verbenalin to fight viral infection.

immunology↗

bioRxiv2021

A noval lightsheet scattering microscopy for long-term visualization of cell-ECM interaction

Visualizing interactions between cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM) mesh is important to understand cell behavior and regulatory mechanisms by the extracellular environment. However, long term visualization of three-dimensional (3D) matrix structures remains challenging mainly due to photobleaching or blind spots perpendicular to the imaging plane. Here, we combine label-free light-sheet scattering microcopy (LSSM) and fluorescence microscopy to solve these problems. We verified that LSSM can reliably visualize structures of collagen matrices from different origin including bovine, human and rat tail. The quality and intensity of collagen structure images acquired by LSSM did not decline with time. LSSM offers abundant wavelength choice to visualize matrix structures, maximizing combination possibilities with fluorescently-labelled cells, allowing visualizing of long-term ECM-cell interactions in 3D. Interestingly, we observed ultrathin thread-like structures between cells and matrix using LSSM, which were not observed by normal fluorescence microscopy. Transient local alignment of matrix by cell-applied forces can be observed. In summary, LSSM provides a powerful and robust approach to investigate the complex interplay between cells and ECM.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2021

Amplicon sequencing of single-copy protein-coding genes reveals accurate diversity for sequence-discrete microbiome populations

An in-depth understanding of microbial function and the division of ecological niches requires accurate delineation and identification of microbes at a fine taxonomic resolution. Microbial phylotypes are typically defined using a 97% small subunit (16S) rRNA threshold. However, increasing evidence has demonstrated the ubiquitous presence of taxonomic units of distinct functions within phylotypes. These so-called sequence-discrete populations (SDPs) have used to be mainly delineated by disjunct sequence similarity at the whole-genome level. However, gene markers that could accurately identify and quantify SDPs are lacking in microbial community studies. Here we developed a pipeline to screen single-copy protein-coding genes that could accurately characterize SDP diversity via amplicon sequencing of microbial communities. Fifteen candidate marker genes were evaluated using three criteria (extent of sequence divergence, phylogenetic accuracy, and conservation of primer regions) and the selected genes were subject to test the efficiency in differentiating SDPs within Gilliamella, a core honeybee gut microbial phylotype, as a proof-of-concept. The results showed that the 16S V4 region failed to report accurate SDP diversities due to low taxonomic resolution and changing copy numbers. In contrast, the single-copy genes recommended by our pipeline were able to successfully quantify Gilliamella SDPs for both mock samples and honeybee guts, with results highly consistent with those of metagenomics. The pipeline developed in this study is expected to identify single-copy protein coding genes capable of accurately quantifying diverse bacterial communities at the SDP level. IMPORTANCEMicrobial communities can be distinguished by discrete genetic and ecological characteristics. These sequence-discrete populations are foundational for investigating the composition and functional structures of microbial communities at high resolution. In this study, we screened for reliable single-copy protein-coding marker genes to identify sequence-discrete populations through our pipeline. Using marker gene amplicon sequencing, we could accurately and efficiently delineate the population diversity in microbial communities. These results suggest that single copy protein-coding genes can be an accurate, quantitative and economical alternative for characterizing population diversity. Moreover, the feasibility of a gene as marker for any bacterial population identification can be quickly evaluated by the pipeline proposed here.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2021

Spatially-resolved transcriptomics analyses of invasive fronts in solid tumors

Solid tumors are complex ecosystems, and heterogeneity is the major challenge for overcoming tumor relapse and metastasis. Uncovering the spatial heterogeneity of cell types and functional states in tumors is essential for developing effective treatment, especially in invasive fronts of tumor, the most active region for tumor cells infiltration and invasion. We firstly used SpaTial Enhanced REsolution Omics-sequencing (Stereo-seq) with a nanoscale resolution to characterize the tumor microenvironment of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC). Enrichment of distinctive immune cells, suppressive immune microenvironment and metabolic reprogramming of tumor cells were identified in the 500{micro}m-wide zone centered bilaterally on the tumor boundary, namely invasive fronts of tumor. Furthermore, we found the damaged states of hepatocytes with overexpression of Serum Amyloid A (SAA) in invasive fronts, recruiting macrophages for facilitating further tumor invasion, and thus resulting in a worse prognosis. We also confirmed these findings in hepatocellular carcinoma and other liver metastatic cancers. Our work highlights the remarkable potential of high-resolution-spatially resolved transcriptomic approaches to provide meaningful biological insights for comprehensively dissecting the tumor ecosystem and guiding the development of novel therapeutic strategies for solid tumors.

cancer biology↗

bioRxiv2021

BioThings SDK: a toolkit for building high-performance data APIs in biomedical research

SummaryTo meet the increased need of making biomedical resources more accessible and reusable, Web APIs or web services have become a common way to disseminate knowledge sources. The BioThings APIs are a collection of high-performance, scalable, annotation as a service APIs that automate the integration of biological annotations from disparate data sources. This collection of APIs currently includes MyGene.info, MyVariant.info, and MyChem.info for integrating annotations on genes, variants, and chemical compounds, respectively. These APIs are used by both individual researchers and application developers to simplify the process of annotation retrieval and identifier mapping. Here, we describe the BioThings Software Development Kit (SDK), a generalizable and reusable toolkit for integrating data from multiple disparate data sources and creating high-performance APIs. This toolkit allows users to easily create their own BioThings APIs for any data type of interest to them, as well as keep APIs up-to-date with their underlying data sources. Availability and implementationThe BioThings SDK is built in Python and released via PyPI (https://pypi.org/project/biothings/). Its source code is hosted at its github repository (https://github.com/biothings/biothings.api).

bioinformatics↗

bioRxiv2021

Metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses reveal the effects of grafting on anthocyanin synthesis in grapevine

The grafting has been commonly used in viticulture, which joints the scion from a cultivar with the stem of a rootstock. Grafting has crucial impacts on various phenotypes of the cultivar including berry metabolome and berry coloring, however, the genetics and regulation mechanisms are largely unexplored. In this study, we analyzed the phenotypic, metabolomic and transcriptomic profiles at three stages (45, 75 and105 days after flowering) of the Crimson Seedless (Vitis vinifera, CS) cultivar grafted to four rootstocks (three heterografting: CS/101-14MG, CS/SO4, CS/110R and one self-grafting CS/CS) with an own-rooted grafting-free Crimson Seedless (CS) as a control. All the heterografting plants had a significant influence on berry reddening as early as ~45 days after flowering. The grafting of rootstocks promoted anthocyanin synthesis and accumulation in grape berries. The metabolomic features showed that Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, Delphinidin 3-O-glucosid, Malvidin 3-O-glucoside, Peonidin 3-O-glucoside and Petunidin 3-O-glucoside were the pigments responsible for the purplish-red color peels. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that the anthocyanins biosynthetic related genes from the upstream (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase) to the downstream (anthocyanidin 3-O-glucosyltransferase and anthocyanidin synthase) were upregulated with the accumulations of anthocyanins in CS/101-14MG, CS/SO4 and CS/110R. At the same time, all these genes were also highly expressed and more anthocyanin was accumulated in CS/CS samples compared to CS samples, suggesting that self-grafting rootstocks might also have promoted berry reddening in grapevine. Our results provide global transcriptomic and metabolomic features in berry coloring regulation under different grafting conditions for improving the berry quality in grapevine production.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2021

Performance Comparison of Computational Prediction Methods for the Function and Pathogenicity of Non-coding Variants

Non-coding variants in the human genome greatly influence some traits and complex diseases by their own regulation and modification effects. Hence, an increasing number of computational methods are developed to predict the effects of variants in the human non-coding sequences. However, it is difficult for users with insufficient knowledge about the performances of computational methods to select appropriate computational methods from dozens of methods. In order to solve this problem, we assessed 12 performance measures of 24 methods on four independent non-coding variant benchmark datasets: (I) rare germline variant from ClinVar, (II) rare somatic variant from COSMIC, (III) common regulatory variant dataset, and (IV) disease associated common variant dataset. All 24 tested methods performed differently under various conditions, indicating that these methods have varying strengths and weaknesses under different scenarios. Importantly, the performance of existing methods was acceptable in the rare germline variant from ClinVar with area under curves (AUCs) of 0.4481 - 0.8033 and poor in the rare somatic variant from COSMIC (AUCs: 0.4984 - 0.7131), common regulatory variant dataset (AUCs: 0.4837 - 0.6472), and disease associated common variant dataset (AUCs: 0.4766 -0.5188). We also compared the prediction performance among 24 methods for non-coding de novo mutations in autism spectrum disorder and found that the CADD and CDTS methods showed better performance. Summarily, we assessed the performances of 24 computational methods under diverse scenarios, providing preliminary advice for proper tool selection and new method development in interpreting non-coding variants.

bioinformatics↗

bioRxiv2021

Genetic control of the dynamic transcriptional response to immune stimuli and glucocorticoids at single cell resolution

Synthetic glucocorticoids, such as dexamethasone, have been used as treatment for many immune conditions, such as asthma and more recently severe COVID-19. Single cell data can capture more fine-grained details on transcriptional variability and dynamics to gain a better understanding of the molecular underpinnings of inter-individual variation in drug response. Here, we used single cell RNA-seq to study the dynamics of the transcriptional response to glucocorticoids in activated Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells from 96 African American children. We employed novel statistical approaches to calculate a mean-independent measure of gene expression variability and a measure of transcriptional response pseudotime. Using these approaches, we demonstrated that glucocorticoids reverse the effects of immune stimulation on both gene expression mean and variability. Our novel measure of gene expression response dynamics, based on the diagonal linear discriminant analysis, separated individual cells by response status on the basis of their transcriptional profiles and allowed us to identify different dynamic patterns of gene expression along the response pseudotime. We identified genetic variants regulating gene expression mean and variability, including treatment-specific effects, and demonstrated widespread genetic regulation of the transcriptional dynamics of the gene expression response.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2021

An ensemble deep learning framework to refine large deletions in linked-reads

The detection of structural variants (SVs) remains challenging due to inconsistencies in detected breakpoints and biological complexity of some rearrangements. Linked-reads have demonstrated their superiority in diploid genome assembly and SV detection. Recently developed tools Aquila and Aquila_stLFR use a reference sequence and linked-reads to generate a high quality diploid genome assembly, using which they then detect and phase personal genetic variations. However, they both produce a substantial proportion of false positive deletion SV calls. To take full advantage of linked-reads, an effective downstream filtering and refinement framework is needed pressingly. In this work, we propose AquilaDeepFilter to filter large deletion SVs from Aquila and Aquila_stLFR. AquilaDeepFilter relies on a deep learning ensemble approach by integrating six state-of-the-art CNN backbones. The filtering of deletion SVs is formulated as a binary classification task on image data that are generated through the extraction of multiple alignment signals, including read depth, split reads and discordant read pairs. Three linked-reads libraries sequenced from the well-studied sample NA24385 and the gold standard of GiaB benchmark were used to perform thorough experiments on our proposed method. The results demonstrated that AquilaDeepFilter could increase the precision rate of Aquila while the recall rate of Aquila decreased only slightly, and the overall F1 improved by 20%. Furthermore, AquilaDeepFilter outperformed another deep learning based method for SV filtering, DeepSVFilter. Even though we designed AquilaDeepFilter for linked-reads, the framework could also be used to improve SV detection on short reads.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2021

MARS: a tool for haplotype-resolved population-based structural variation detection

MotivationLinked-reads enables genome-wide phased diploid assemblies. These haplotype-resolved assemblies allow us to genotype structural variants (SVs) with a high sensitivity and be able to further phase them. Yet, existing SV callers are designed for haploid genome assemblies only, and there is no tool to call SV from a large population of diploid assemblies which can define and refine SVs from a global view. ResultsWe introduce MARS (Multiple Alignment-based Refinement of Svs) in linked-reads for the detection of the most common SV types - indels from diploid genome assemblies of a large population. We evaluated SVs from MARS based on Mendelian law of inheritance and PacBio HiFi reads and it achieved a high validation rate around 73%-87% for indels that we have selected from 34 assembled samples. AvailabilitySource code and documentation are available on https://github.com/maiziex/MARS. Contactmaizie.zhou@vanderbilt.edu Supplementary informationSupplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2021

Concurrent tau pathologies in frontotemporal lobar degeneration with TDP-43 pathology

AimsAccumulating evidence suggests that patients with frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) can have pathologic accumulation of multiple proteins, including tau and TDP-43. This study aimed to determine the frequency and characteristics of concurrent tau pathology in FTLD with TDP-43 pathology (FTLD-TDP). MethodsThe study included 146 autopsy-confirmed cases of FTLD-TDP and 55 cases of FTLD-TDP with motor neuron disease (FTLD-MND). Sections from the basal forebrain were screened for tau pathology with phospho-tau immunohistochemistry. For cases with tau pathology on the screening section, additional brain sections were studied to establish a diagnosis. Genetic analysis of C9ORF72, GRN, and MAPT was performed on select cases. ResultsAmong 201 cases, we found 72 cases (36%) with primary age-related tauopathy (PART), 85 (42%) with aging-related tau astrogliopathy (ARTAG), 45 (22%) with argyrophilic grain disease (AGD), and 2 cases (1%) with corticobasal degeneration (CBD). Patients with ARTAG or AGD were significantly older than those without these comorbidities. One of the patients with FTLD-TDP and CBD had C9ORF72 mutation and relatively mild tau pathology, consistent with incidental CBD. ConclusionThe coexistence of TDP-43 and tau pathologies was relatively common, particularly PART and ARTAG. Although rare, individual patients with FTLD can have multiple concurrent proteinopathies. The absence of TDP-43-positive astrocytic plaques may suggest that CBD and FTLD-TDP were independent disease processes in the two patients with both tau and TDP-43 pathologies. It remains to be determined if mixed cases represent a unique disease process or two concurrent disease processes in an individual.

pathology↗

bioRxiv2021

Addition of a carboxy terminal tail to the normally tailless gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor impairs fertility in female mice

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is the primary neuropeptide controlling reproduction in vertebrates. GnRH stimulates follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) synthesis via a G protein-coupled receptor, GnRHR, in the pituitary gland. In mammals, GnRHR lacks a C-terminal cytosolic tail (Ctail) and does not exhibit homologous desensitization. This might be an evolutionary adaptation that enables LH surge generation and ovulation. To test this idea, we fused the chicken GnRHR Ctail to the endogenous murine GnRHR in a transgenic model. The LH surge was blunted, but not blocked in these mice. In contrast, they showed reductions in FSH production, ovarian follicle development, and fertility. Addition of the Ctail altered the nature of agonist-induced calcium signaling required for normal FSH production. The loss of the GnRHR Ctail during mammalian evolution is unlikely to have conferred a selective advantage by enabling the LH surge. The adaptive significance of this specialization remains to be determined.

physiology↗

bioRxiv2021

Ultrafast, one-step, and microwave heating-based synthesis of DNA/RNA-AuNP conjugates

DNA/RNA-gold nanoparticle (DNA/RNA-AuNP) nanoprobes have been widely employed for nanobiotechnology applications. Here we discovered that both thiolated and non-thiolated DNA/RNA can be efficiently attached to AuNPs to achieve high-stable spherical nucleic acid (SNA) within minutes under a domestic microwave (MW)-assisted heating-dry circumstance. Further studies showed that for non-thiolated DNA/RNA the conjugation is poly (T/U) tag dependent. Spectroscopy, test strip hybridization, and loading counting experiments indicate that low-affinity poly (T/U) tag mediates the formation of a standing-up conformation, which is distributed in the outer layer of such a SNA structure. In further applications study, CRISPR/Cas9-sgRNA (135 bp), RNA from Nucleocapsid (N) gene of SARS-CoV-2 (1279 bp), and rolling circle amplification (RCA) DNA products (over 1000 bp) could be successfully attached on AuNPs, which overcomes the routine methods in long-chain nucleic acid-AuNP conjugation, exhibiting great promise in novel biosensing and nucleic acids delivery strategy. This novel heating-dry strategy has improved the traditional DNA/RNA-AuNP conjugation methods in simplicity, rapidity, cost, and universality.

biochemistry↗

bioRxiv2021

Common and distinct neurofunctional representations of core and social disgust in the brain: An ALE meta-analysis and MACM characterization

Disgust represents a multifaceted defensive-avoidance response. On the behavioral level, the response includes withdrawal and a disgust-specific facial expression. While both serve the avoidance of pathogens, the latter additionally transmits social-communicative information. Given that common and distinct brain representation of the primary defensive-avoidance response (core disgust) and encoding of the social-communicative signal (social disgust) remain debated, we employed neuroimaging meta-analyses to (1) determine brain systems generally engaged in disgust processing, and (2) segregate common and distinct brain systems for core and social disgust. Disgust processing, in general, engaged a bilateral network encompassing the insula, amygdala, occipital and prefrontal regions. Core disgust evoked stronger reactivity in left-lateralized threat detection and defensive response network including amygdala, occipital and frontal regions while social disgust engaged a right-lateralized superior temporal-frontal network engaged in social cognition. Anterior insula, inferior frontal and fusiform regions were commonly engaged during core and social disgust, suggesting a common neural basis. We demonstrate a common and separable neural basis of primary disgust responses and encoding of associated social-communicative signals.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2021

Dysfunction of novel energy sensor NFE2L1 leads to uncontrollable AMPK signal and glucose metabolism reprogramming

NFE2L1 (also called Nrf1) acts a core regulator of redox signaling and metabolism homeostasis, and thus its dysfunction results in multiple systemic metabolic diseases. However, the molecular mechanism(s) by which NFE2L1 regulates glycose and lipid metabolism is still elusive. Here, we found that the loss of NFE2L1 in human HepG2 cells led to a lethal phenotype upon glucose deprivation. The uptake of glucose was also affected by NFE2L1 deficiency. Further experiments unveiled that although the glycosylation of NFE2L1 was monitored through the glycolysis pathway, it enabled to sense the energy state and directly interacted with AMPK. These indicate that NFE2L1 can serve as a dual sensor and regulator of glucose homeostasis. In-depth sights into transcriptome, metabolome and seahorse data further unraveled that glucose metabolism was reprogrammed by disruption of NFE2L1, so as to aggravate the Warburg effect in NFE2L1-silenced hepatoma cells, along with the mitochondrial damage observed under the electron microscope. Collectively, these demonstrate that disfunction of NFE2L1 triggers the uncontrollable signaling by AMPK towards glucose metabolism reprogramming in the liver cancer development.

molecular biology↗

bioRxiv2021

Schema Playground: A tool for authoring, extending, and using metadata schemas to improve FAIRness of biomedical data

BackgroundBiomedical researchers are strongly encouraged to make their research outputs more Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR). While many biomedical research outputs are more readily accessible through open data efforts, finding relevant outputs remains a significant challenge. Schema.org is a metadata vocabulary standardization project that enables web content creators to make their content more FAIR. Leveraging schema.org could benefit biomedical research resource providers, but it can be challenging to apply schema.org standards to biomedical research outputs. We created an online browser-based tool that empowers researchers and repository developers to utilize schema.org or other biomedical schema projects. ResultsOur browser-based tool includes features which can help address many of the barriers towards schema.org-compliance such as: The ability to easily browse for relevant schema.org classes, the ability to extend and customize a class to be more suitable for biomedical research outputs, the ability to create data validation to ensure adherence of a research output to a customized class, and the ability to register a custom class to our schema registry enabling others to search and re-use it. We demonstrate the use of our tool with the creation of the Outbreak.info schema--a large multi-class schema for harmonizing various COVID-19 related resources. ConclusionsWe have created a browser-based tool to empower biomedical research resource providers to leverage schema.org classes to make their research outputs more FAIR.

bioinformatics↗

bioRxiv2021

Abnormal Differentiation and Proliferation of Coronary Arterial Endothelium in Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome

Hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) is a severe form of single ventricle congenital heart disease characterized by the underdevelopment of the left ventricle. Early serial postmortem examinations revealed high rate of coronary artery abnormalities in HLHS fetal hearts, such as thickened wall, kinking arteries and ventriculo-coronary arterial connection. However, it is unclear if there is an intrinsic defect in the HLHS coronary vessels and what the underlying molecular mechanism is. Here, we profiled both human fetal heart with an underdeveloped left ventricle (ULV) and ECs differentiated from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from HLHS patients at single cell resolution. CD144+/NPR3-vascular ECs were selected and further classified as venous, arterial and late arterial subclusters. To study the arterial EC phenotype, we specifically generated iPSC-arterial ECs (AECs, CD34+CDH5+CXCR4+NT5E-/low) derived from three HLHS patients and three age-matched healthy controls. Gene ontology analysis revealed that ULV late arterial EC subcluster showed specific defects in endothelial development, proliferation, and Notch signaling compared to control. Consistently, HLHS iPSCs exhibited impaired AEC differentiation shown as the reduced CXCR4+NT5E-/low AEC progenitor population. Mature HLHS iPSC-AECs also exhibited increased G0/G1 cell cycle arrest with decreased expression of cell cycle related genes (e.g., Ki67, CCND1/2). Additionally, NOTCH targeted genes (e.g., DLL4, HEY1, GJA5) were found suppressed in both ULV AECs and HLHS iPSC-AECs compared to control. We also found the HLHS de novo mutation gene KMT2D directly regulated the transcription of NOTCH targeted genes participating in arterial differentiation and cell proliferation, contributing to the HLHS AEC dysfunctionalities. Intriguingly, the treatment of NOTCH ligand JAG1 improved cell proliferation of HLHS AECs and upregulated G1/S transition genes downstream of NOTCH pathway. In summary, our results revealed that KMT2D directly regulated transcription activity of NOTCH signaling, contributing to the poor differentiation and low proliferation of HLHS coronary AECs.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2021

24-nt phasiRNAs move from tapetal to meiotic cells in maize anthers

O_LIIn maize, 24-nt phased, secondary small interfering RNAs (phasiRNAs) are abundant in meiotic stage anthers, but their distribution and functions are not precisely known. C_LIO_LIUsing laser capture microdissection, we analyzed tapetal cells, meiocytes, and other somatic cells at several stages of anther development to establish the timing of 24-PHAS precursor transcripts and the 24-nt phasiRNA products. C_LIO_LIBy integrating RNA and small RNA profiling plus single-molecule and small RNA FISH (smFISH or sRNA-FISH) spatial detection, we demonstrate that the tapetum is the primary site of 24-PHAS precursor and Dcl5 transcripts and the resulting 24-nt phasiRNAs. Interestingly, 24-nt phasiRNAs accumulate in all cell types, with the highest levels in meiocytes, followed by tapetum. C_LIO_LIOur data support the conclusion that 24-nt phasiRNAs are mobile from tapetum to meiocytes and to other somatic cells. We discuss possible roles for 24-nt phasiRNAs in anther cell types. C_LI

plant biology↗