Molecular characterization of pathogenic African trypanosomes in biting flies and camels in surra-endemic areas outside the tsetse fly belt in Kenya
BackgroundAfrican animal trypanosomosis is becoming prevalent beyond its traditionally defined geographical boundaries and is a threat to animals beyond the tsetse belts in and outside Africa. However, knowledge of infections with clinically important trypanosome species and their diversity among field-collected hematophagous biting flies and domestic animals is limited mainly to tsetse and their mammalian hosts in tsetse-infested areas. This study aimed to examine the presence of trypanosomes in both biting flies and domestic animals outside the tsetse belt in northern Kenya, potential mechanical vector species, and their host-feeding profiles. MethodsWe screened for pathogenic African trypanosomes in blood samples from domestic animals and field-trapped flies by microscopy and sequencing of internal transcribed spacer (ITS1) gene PCR products. We sequenced kinetoplast maxicircle genes to confirm Trypanosoma brucei detection and the RoTat 1.2 and kinetoplast minicircle genes to differentiate type-A and type-B Trypanosoma evansi, respectively. Further, we identified the hosts that field-trapped flies fed on by PCR-HRM and sequencing of 16S rRNA genes. ResultsHippobosca camelina, Stomoxys calcitrans, Tabanus spp., and Pangonia rueppellii are potential vectors of trypanosomes outside the tsetse belt in Marsabit County, northern Kenya. We identified Trypanosoma spp., including Trypanosoma vivax, T. evansi, T. brucei, and T. congolense in these biting flies as well as in camels (Camelus dromedarius). Trypanosomes detected varied from single up to three trypanosome species in H. camelina and camels in areas where no tsetse flies were trapped. Similar trypanosomes were detected in Glossina pallidipes collected from a tsetse-infested area in Shimba Hills, coastal Kenya, showing the wide geographic distribution of trypanosomes. Furthermore, we show that these biting flies acquired blood meals from camels, cattle, goats, and sheep. Phylogenetic analysis revealed diverse Trypanosoma spp. associated with variations in virulence and epidemiology in camels, which suggests that camel trypanosomosis may be due to mixed trypanosome infections rather than only surra (T. evansi), as previously thought.