Carbon-conserving Bioproduction of Malate in an E. coli-based Cell-Free System
Formate, a biologically accessible form of CO2, has attracted interest as a renewable feedstock for bioproduction. However, approaches are needed to investigate efficient routes for biological formate assimilation due to its toxicity and limited utilization by microorganisms. Cell-free systems hold promise due to their potential for efficient use of carbon and energy sources and compatibility with diverse feedstocks. However, bioproduction using purified cell-free systems is limited by costly enzyme purification, whereas lysate-based systems must overcome loss of flux to background reactions in the cell extract. Here, we engineer an E. coli-based system for an eight-enzyme pathway from DNA and incorporate strategies to regenerate cofactors and minimize loss of flux through background reactions. We produce the industrial di-acid malate from glycine, bicarbonate, and formate by engineering the carbon-conserving reductive TCA and formate assimilation pathways. We show that in situ regeneration of NADH drives metabolic flux towards malate, improving titer by 15-fold. Background reactions can also be reduced 6-fold by diluting the lysate following expression and introducing chemical inhibitors of competing reactions. Together, these results establish a carbon-conserving, lysate-based cell-free platform for malate production, producing 64 M malate after 8 hours. This system conserves 43% of carbon otherwise lost as CO2 and incorporates 0.13 mol CO2 equivalents/mol glycine fed. Finally, techno-economic analysis of cell-free malate production from formate revealed that the high cost of lysate is a key challenge to the economic feasibility of the process, even assuming efficient cofactor recycling. This work demonstrates the capabilities of cell-free expression systems for both the prototyping of carbon-conserving pathways and the sustainable bioproduction of platform chemicals. HighlightsO_LISuccessfully engineered the carbon-conserving reductive TCA and formate assimilation pathways in a lysate-based cell-free system for production of the C4 industrial di-acid malate from C1 and C2 feedstocks. C_LIO_LIAchieved a 6-fold reduction in competition from the endogenous cell-free metabolism by blocking TCA activity using small-molecule inhibitors and lysate dilution. C_LIO_LIIncreased accumulation of malate by 15-fold in a single-step reaction using cell-free expression of an enzymatic cofactor regeneration system. C_LIO_LITechno-economic analysis identified routes for economically feasible production of malate from renewable feedstocks in a cell-free system by improving conversion efficiency and reducing lysate cost. C_LI Graphical Abstract O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=161 SRC="FIGDIR/small/623433v1_ufig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (29K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@3c89adorg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@72d9b3org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@327e2eorg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@fa0964_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG