Like mother, like daughter? Phenotypic plasticity, environmental covariation, and heritability of size in a parthenogenetic wasp
Dinocampus coccinellae (Hymenoptera:Braconidae, Euphorinae) is a solitary, generalist Braconid parasitoid wasp that reproduces through thelytokous parthenogenesis, an asexual process in which diploid daughters emerge from unfertilized eggs, and parasitizes over fifty diverse species of coccinellid ladybeetles worldwide as hosts. Here we utilized a common garden and reciprocal transplant experiment using parthenogenetic lines of D. coccinellae presented with three different host ladybeetle species of varying sizes, across multiple generations to investigate heritability, plasticity, and environmental covariation of body size in D. coccinellae. We expected positively correlated parent-offspring parasitoid regressions, indicative of heritable size variation, from unilineal (parent and offspring reared on same host species) lines, since these restrict environmental variation in phenotypes. In contrast, because multilineal (parent and offspring reared on different host species) lines would induce phenotypic plasticity of clones reared in varying environments, we expected negatively correlated parent-offspring parasitoid regressions. Our results indicate (1) little heritable variation in body size, (2) strong independence of offspring size on the host environment, (3) a consistent signal of size-host tradeoff wherein small mothers produced larger offspring, and vice versa, independent of host environment. We then model the evolution of size and host-shifting under a constrained fecundity advantage model of Copes Law using a Hidden Markov Model, showing that D. coccinellae likely has considerable fitness advantage to maintain phenotypic plasticity in body size despite parthenogenetic reproduction.