Avian influenza virus circulation and immunity in a wild urban duck population prior to and during a highly pathogenic H5N1 outbreak
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b viruses were first detected in St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada in late 2021, with the virus rapidly spreading across the western hemisphere over the next year. To investigate the patterns of avian influenza virus (AIV) infection and immune responses subsequent to the arrival of H5N1, we sampled the wild urban duck population in St. Johns for a period of 16 months after the start of the outbreak and compared these findings to archived samples. Antibody seroprevalence was relatively stable before the outbreak (2011-2014) at 27.6% and 3.9% for anti-AIV (i.e., NP) and H5-specific antibodies, respectively. During the winter of 2022, AIV-NP and H5-specific antibody seroprevalence both reached 100%, signifying a population-wide infection event. As expected, population-level immunity waned over time, and we found that ducks were seropositive for anti- AIV-NP antibodies for around twice as long as for H5-specific antibodies. The population was H5 seronegative to the latter approximately six months after the initial H5N1 incursion. In late February 2023, H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b viruses were again detected in the duck population as a result of a second incursion into Newfoundland from Eurasia, which resulted in a second population-wide infection event. We observed a clear relationship of increasing antibody levels with decreasing viral RNA loads that allowed for interpretation of the course of infection and immune response in infected individuals and applied these findings to two cases of resampled ducks to infer infection history. Our study highlights the significance of applying both AIV surveillance and seroprevalence monitoring to provide a better understanding of AIV dynamics in wild populations, which may be crucial following the arrival of 2.3.4.4b H5Nx subtypes to assess the threats they pose to both wild and domestic animals, and to humans.