Biology subjects

Ray, S. K.

Publications and source records attributed to Ray, S. K..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Mutation in Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum F1C1 cytochrome p450 homologue impairs virulence through root but not through shoot of tomato plants

Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum causes a lethal bacterial wilt disease in many plants. The pathogen enters through roots and systemically colonizes the xylem tissue, resulting in wilting and eventual death of the host. Using transposon mutagenesis followed by screening in tomato seedlings, we identified a mutant exhibiting virulence deficiency by root inoculation, but not by leaf inoculation. The mutation was recreated in the wild-type genome via natural transformation to prove the linkage of virulence deficiency with the transposon insertion. Whole genome sequencing revealed that the transposon insertion was in a cyp450 homologue, encoding cytochrome P450 monooxygenase. Two independent targeted mutations were generated in the cyp450 gene, and both the mutants recapitulated the root-specific virulence deficiency. The mutants rarely cause disease in mature plants following soil drenching but remained fully virulent upon petiole pricking inoculation. Complementation with the full length cyp450 gene amplified from the wild-type strain F1C1 restored virulence in the mutant. Compared to the wild-type F1C1, the cyp450 mutants exhibited greater sensitivity to tomato root extracts. HR-LCMS of tomato root extracts revealed the occurrence of several antimicrobial compounds. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are known to mediate the degradation or biosynthesis of diverse metabolites in bacteria. Considering the virulence difference due to the mode of inoculation, our findings indicate that cyp450 contributes to tissue-specific adaptation of the pathogen during infection has opened an avenue for integrating tissue metabolomics with bacterial wilt susceptibility research.

pathology↗

bioRxiv2026

Expression-dependent but strand-independent synonymous single-nucleotide polymorphism in the Escherichia coli chromosome

AbstractMutation in genomes is mainly attributed to replication, though transcription is also known to be mutagenic and is a more frequent event than replication in an organism. Recently, there have been reports regarding genome-wide transcription-induced mutagenesis. However, a distinct demonstration of specific mutation being replication-dependent and/or transcription-dependent in genomes is yet to be established. Here, we studied synonymous single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 2091 individual coding sequences (CDS) in the leading strand (LeS) and the lagging strand (LaS) of the Escherichia coli chromosome by comparing across 157 strains. The frequencies of complementary transitions (ti) and complementary transversions (tv) were compared in each CDS to assess parity violation in the context of strand location and gene expression. The C[->]T and G[->]A exhibited the maximum frequency as well as the most prominent strand inequality as these tis were influenced both by the strand location as well as by the gene expression. Interestingly, inequality between T[->]C and A[->]G was expression-dependent but strand-independent. This was a direct demonstration of strand inequality due to expression but not due to replication. A[->]T and G[->]T tvs were universally more frequent than their complementary T[->]A and C[->]A, respectively. The strand-independent but expression-dependent synonymous SNP inequality in CDS, supports the role of transcription-induced mutagenesis contributing to strand inequality in the E. coli chromosome. Significance StatementMutational patterns in bacterial genomes are shaped by both replication and transcription, but their relative roles remain unclear. By analyzing synonymous SNPs across 157 strains of E. coli, we identify strong strand-specific asymmetry consistent with replication-associated biases. A strong asymmetry between the strands regarding C[->]T and G[->]A ti is observed, as it is influenced by replication asymmetry and expression. We further show that gene expression significantly influences mutation types, with T[->]C ti being enriched in the highly expressed genes and A[->]G ti being enriched in the lowly expressed genes. Notably, A[->]T ti is strand independent but exhibits mild dependency on gene expression, revealing a previously unrecognized mutational pattern. These findings highlight how some SNPs are influenced by transcription but not replication

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2026

Morphology of petiole bending, senescence, epinasty, along with necrotic scarring in tomato leaves infiltrated with virulent Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum

Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum (Rps) belongs to the Ralstonia solanacearum species complex (RSSC). It is a vascular pathogen that causes lethal bacterial wilt disease in many plants, including tomato and eggplant. In this study, we infiltrated tomato leaves with the phytopathogenic bacterium at 109 CFU/mL and observed the development of necrotic scars in the infiltrated area at 48 hours post-infiltration. Interestingly, this response was followed by petiole bending toward the ground of the compound leaf. This was followed by the gradual senescence of the infiltrated leaflet only. In addition, the terminal leaflet infiltrated with the pathogen exhibited epinasty. None of the above symptoms were observed in leaves infiltrated with the known virulent deficient hrpB::{Omega} mutant. Surprisingly, all of the above symptoms were observed in leaves infiltrated with another well-known virulence-deficient mutant phcA::{Omega}. It indicated that the necrotic lesion caused in tomato leaves was hrp-dependent. Infiltration in eggplant leaves caused necrotic scarring and leaf senescence, which were relatively delayed. Necrotic scarring without petiole bending or senescence in tomato leaves was also observed due to infiltration of Pseudomonas aeruginosa SPT08, a tomato endophyte having plant growth promotion activity. The patho-phenotypes such as petiole bending, epinasty, and senescence observed in the case of tomato in this study were not reported earlier. We believe these phenotypes produced in tomato after leaf infiltration may be useful to study the virulence of this pathogen.

pathology↗

bioRxiv2026

Self-organizing physical and biochemical interactions explain diverse behaviours in Physarum polycephalum

How can simple organisms lacking nervous systems encode and transmit environmental signals to generate complex, adaptive behaviours? Using the unicellular organism Physarum polycephalum as a model, we identify a unifying mechanochemical mechanism that links intracellular calcium oscillations to large-scale behavioural coordination. We first demonstrate experimentally that local perturbation of the actomyosin cortex is sufficient to induce symmetry breaking and directed migration, even in the absence of nutrient cues. Building on evidence linking calcium concentration to actin depolymerization and contractile relaxation, we develop a mechanochemical tubule model in which self-sustained calcium oscillations are coupled to pressure-driven mechanics. We show that environmental cues, encoded through the local modulation of these oscillations, give rise to directed transport and the redistribution of biomass. By extending this framework to a two-dimensional phase-field model, we demonstrate that this mechanism is sufficient to generate a diverse set of slime mould behaviours, including chemotaxis, network formation, and balancing exploration-exploitation trade-offs. In doing so, we provide a single mechanistic framework linking intracellular dynamics to organism-scale behaviour across spatial and temporal scales. Our work shows that these sophisticated behaviours can emerge from the modulation of self-sustained oscillations coupled by diffusion, providing a physically grounded mechanism for information processing in non-neural organisms and offering insight into the evolutionary origins of coordinated behaviour.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2026

Regions of genome plasticity are systematically organized into recurrent integration spots that shape accessory-genome functional architecture: insights from a complete genome of strain F1C1 and pangenomic analysis of the Ralstonia solanacearum species complex

1The Ralstonia solanacearum species complex (RSSC) is a highly diverse plant pathogen whose evolution is shaped by horizontal gene transfer. We generated a complete, gap-free hybrid genome assembly of F1C1, a South Asian Phylotype I strain classified as R. pseudosolanacearum. The closed assembly resolves a bipartite genome (3.73 Mb chromosome; 2.03 Mb megaplasmid), enabling precise localization of mobile genetic elements. Using F1C1 together with 142 complete RSSC genomes, we implemented a lineage-stratified pangenome framework that reveals a hierarchically structured gene repertoire and shows that accessory gene content can discriminate host-associated lineages beyond core-genome. Pangenome-informed mapping of genome plasticity identified 651 conserved integration spots that concentrate accessory turnover and are enriched for adaptive functions, including type III secretion system effectors and antiviral defense systems (e.g., Wadjet and CRISPR-Cas). Genes within these spots display elevated Ka/Ks relative to housekeeping functions, consistent with conflict-driven diversification and/or relaxed constraint. Together, these results link RSSC genome architecture to adaptive potential and provide a spot-based framework for genomic surveillance and resistance breeding in bacterial wilt pathosystems.

genomics↗

bioRxiv2025

Heat shock-mediated transformation in several Gram-negative bacteria such as Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida, and Enterobacter roggenkampii

Transformation of foreign DNA, subjecting Escherichia coli to CaCl2 treatment followed by heat shock exposure, is a regular approach in recombinant DNA technology. However, in spite of its large popularity in E. coli, heat shock transformation is rarely reported in other Gram-negative bacteria. Instead, techniques such as natural transformation, conjugation, or electroporation are used in those bacteria. In this study, we have successfully implemented the heat shock transformation in four different Gram-negative bacteria, such as Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida, and Enterobacter roggenkampii. The standard heat shock transformation procedure used for E. coli DH5 has been modified. The pDSK-GFPuv plasmid bearing the green fluorescence gene was directly transferred to Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum by heat shock at 50 {o}C for 60 seconds. For Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida, and Enterobacter roggenkampii, the cells were made competent using CaCl2, followed by performing transformation by heat shock at 50 {o}C for 180 seconds. The transformants were resistant to kanamycin as well as exhibited fluorescence. These transformants were used to study the colonization pattern of tomato seedlings. Our study suggested that the heat shock transformation method can also be performed to introduce genes in other Gram-negative bacteria, other than E. coli.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2025

Pseudomonas aeruginosa SPT08, a tomato endophyte, improves plant growth and controls bacterial wilt in tomato

Endophytes are a class of non-pathogenic microorganisms that reside within a plant and contribute to their health. Here, we isolated several endophytes from cotyledon-stage tomato seedlings that inhibited the growth of Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum, the bacterial wilt pathogen of tomato. One such endophyte, Pseudomonas aeruginosa SPT08, protected tomato seedlings as well as grown-up plants from the wilt disease. SPT08 also improved the tomato plant height by 20% and root growth by 60% in weight. SPT08 colonization inside tomato seedlings as well as in grown-up plants was studied using green fluorescent protein to demonstrate its endophytic behavior. SPT08 exhibited twitching and swimming motility and produced extracellular enzymes such as pectinase, protease, and amylase. SPT08 tested positive for several plant growth-promoting features such as phosphate solubilization, production of siderophore, plant hormone auxin, hydrogen cyanide, and ammonia. These features were further corroborated with SPT08 whole genome sequence. SPT08 genome is 6265489 bp, with 66.59% G+C and 5786 coding genes, including type II, III, and VI protein secretion systems. The antiSMASH tool identified potential for several secondary metabolites, including antibiotics, in SPT08. This study underscores the utility of P. aeruginosa SPT08 bio-protection from bacterial wilt and growth promotion agent in tomato. HighlightsPseudomonas aeruginosa SPT08, an endophyte isolated from tomato seedlings that inhibits bacterial wilt pathogen R. pseudosolanacearum, can control bacterial wilt in tomato plants and enhance the height and root growth.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2024

Higher frequency of transition mutation over transversion mutation in genomes: evidence from the binding energy calculation of base pairs using DFT

Base substitution mutations such as transition (ti) and transversion (tv) in organisms are major driving force in molecular evolution. In this study, different possible types of base pairing that can cause ti and tv were investigated using the density functional theory (DFT) method. The chemical structures of bases as well as base pairs were optimized using B3LYP hybrid functional along with 6-31G(d,p) basis set. We performed single point energy calculation of all optimized species using the same functional but combined with higher diffuse and polarized basis set i.e. 6-311++G(d,p) to get more refined energy of all species. The binding energy of various base pairs was calculated considering basis set superposition error (BSSE) as well as without BSSE. The binding energy of the base pairs leading to ti was found to be more stable than that of the base pairs leading to tv. This was interesting considering the observations in organisms that tis are more frequent than tvs. Among the base pairs leading to the same ti, G(keto): T (enol) base pair was found to be more stable than A(imino):C(amino) base pair. This theoretical study of binding energy of different base pairs using the DFT method has provided additional evidences in support to the biological observations of a higher transition rate than transversion in genomes.

molecular biology↗

bioRxiv2024

The impact of fold-dilution and diluent volume on the estimation of colony forming units in a bacterial culture

Considering the non-uniform distribution of bacteria in a liquid culture, accurate enumeration of bacteria by serial dilution is important yet challenging in microbiological research. The deviation of estimated population size from the actual population size is anticipated in view of the sampling error arising at dilution, which is known to increase at each successive dilution; and the sampling error associated with the sample volume, where it is inversely proportional. In the dilution process of such population following a Poisson distribution, the relation of sampling error with the sequentially diluted suspensions is yet to be empirically demonstrated. Also, as a given-fold dilution can be achieved by passaging of either a higher or a lower sample volume, the sampling error associated in this case with the volume being passaged also remains to be evaluated. In view of that, the current experimental study was undertaken to further understand bacterial distribution and the underlying sampling error in dimensions previously not demonstrated. We demonstrated that sampling error in the enumeration process is independent of the bacterial cell densities of the diluted suspensions, which was on contrary to the theoretical assumptions. Moreover, sampling error is also not dependent on the number of passages in the dilution process. Importantly, we also demonstrated that passaging either a higher or lower sample volumes during serial dilution yielded similar enumeration, which was exceptional with regards to the statistical fluctuations inherent to a Poisson distribution.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2024

Tissue-independent nature of plant susceptibility: a comparative pathogenicity study of the systemic phytopathogen Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum in eggplant and tomato seedlings through root and leaf

Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum causes a lethal bacterial wilt disease in many plant species, posing significant economic challenges. Although tomato has been a primary model host for investigating the pathogenicity and systemic infection of this bacterium, this manuscript presents a comparative pathogenicity study between two closely related solanaceous hosts, tomato and eggplant, revealing differential host responses to the same pathogen, specifically through leaves and roots. Interestingly, eggplant seedlings exhibited a significantly higher susceptibility to cotyledon leaf inoculation than tomato seedlings. In the case of tomato, a few seedlings escaped wilting (called escapees), which was usual at a high pathogen load, unlike the case of eggplant seedlings where escapees could not be observed even at a 100-fold lower pathogen concentration. The greater susceptibility of eggplant was further demonstrated by performing both single- and double-leaf inoculations in the seedlings. Surprisingly, root inoculations resulted in a significantly lower mortality for eggplant than for tomato seedlings. The contrasting susceptibility between the two hosts regarding root and leaf regions indicates the tissue-dependent nature of susceptibility. The study underscores the value of employing multiple host species to uncover new insights into pathogen behaviour and host-pathogen interactions.

pathology↗

bioRxiv2024

Morphology of softening and translucency in the stems of tomato and eggplant seedlings due to infection by Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum F1C1

Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum F1C1 is a soil-borne phytopathogenic bacterium with a broad host range that infects several economically important crops. This study primarily focuses on the infection of this phytopathogen in two such important crop seedlings: tomato and eggplant. The observations of the study reveal a complex set of symptoms that include drooping and blackening of the seedling stem, as well as blackening, chlorosis, and curling of cotyledon leaves. Notably, the symptom of stem softening and translucency is seen primarily in the water-submerged stem regions of both root- and leaf-inoculated seedlings. While the wild-type R. pseudosolanacearum F1C1 strain and its weakly virulent mutant phcA::{Omega} exhibited this phenotype in both tomato and eggplant seedlings, the virulence-deficient hrpB::{Omega} mutant did so only in a few eggplant seedlings but not in tomato seedlings. By investigating these unique pathological phenotypes in the infected seedlings, this study uncovers a unique symptom previously not reported in seedling inoculation experiments. The work also touches upon the distinct escape mechanisms exhibited by seedlings, revealing how some of its host plants might resist wilting despite infection, offering new avenues for future research. These findings contribute to the understanding of R. pseudosolanacearum pathogenesis, shedding light on its virulence and host response mechanisms.

plant biology↗

bioRxiv2022

Codon degeneracy as well as pretermination codons influence transition to transversion ratio in coding sequences

Transition (ti) and transversion (tv) are the major causes for genome variation. The accurate estimation of ti to tv ratio [Formula] in genomes is crucial for understanding of mutational and selection processes in organisms as it is influenced by both codon degeneracy and pretermination codons (PTC). Therefore, we developed a method (accessible at https://github.com/CBBILAB/CBBI.git) to estimate [Formula] ratio by accounting codon degeneracy as well as PTC in protein coding sequences. Our findings revealed a distinct impact of codon degeneracy and PTC on the [Formula] ratio in the Escherichia coli genome. We observed a decreasing order among the frequencies of different base substitutions such as synonymous transition (Sti) > synonymous transversion (Stv) > non-synonymous transition (Nti) > non-synonymous transversion (Ntv) in E. coli genome. The correlation was strong between Sti and Stv values (Pearson r value 0.795) whereas the correlation was weak between Sti and Nti (Pearson r value 0.192). Coding sequences with similar Sti values exhibited a wide range of Nti values. This indicated the varying strength of purifying selection acting on the coding sequences. In concordance with the assumption, the genes having higher Nti values were observed with lower codon adaptation index (CAI) values than that of the genes having lower Nti values. Our approach is convenient to visualize the frequency of base substitution variation as well as selection in protein coding sequences. The proposed method is useful to estimate different [Formula] ratios accurately in coding sequences and is insightful from an evolutionary perspective. Article SummaryGenetic diversity is pivotal in evolution, with base substitution as a key driver. Transition (ti) frequency surpasses transversion (tv) frequency in genomes, making [Formula] ratios a valuable metric for studying mutation bias. Our improved estimator for [Formula] calculation accounts for codon degeneracy and nonsense substitutions in pretermination codons. Additionally, we unveil insights into the frequency of different substitutions such as Sti, Stv, Nti, and Ntv and demonstrate the impact of selection on protein coding sequences.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2022

The transcribed intergenic regions exhibit lower frequency of nucleotide polymorphism than the untranscribed intergenic regions in the genomes of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica

The temporary exposure of single-stranded regions in the genome during the process of replication and transcription makes the region vulnerable to cytosine deamination resulting higher rate of C[->]T transitions. Intra-operon intergenic regions undergo transcription along with adjacent co-transcribed genes in an operon, whereas inter-operon intergenic regions only undergo replication. Hence these two types of intergenic regions (IGRs) can be compared to find out the contribution of replication-associated mutations (RAM) and transcription-associated mutations (TrAM) towards bringing variation in genomes. In our work, we performed a polymorphism spectra comparison between intra-operon IGRs and inter-operon IGRs in genomes of two well-known closely related bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica. In general, the size of intra-operon IGRs was smaller than that of inter-operon IGRs in these bacteria. Interestingly, the polymorphism frequency at intra-operon IGRs was 2.5-fold lesser than that in the inter-operon IGRs in E. coli genome. Similarly, the polymorphism frequency at intra-operon IGRs was 2.8-fold lesser than that in the inter-operon IGRs in S. enterica genome. Therefore, the intra-operon IGRs were often observed to be more conserved. In the case of inter-operon IGRs, the T[->]C transition frequency was a minimum of two times more than T[->]A transversion frequency whereas in the case of intra-operon IGRs, T[->]C transition frequency was similar to that of T[->]A transversion frequency. The polymorphism was purine biased and keto biased more in intra-operon IGRs than the inter-operon IGRs. In E. coli, the Ti/Tv ratio was observed as 1.639 and 1.338 in inter-operon and in intra-operon IGRs, respectively. In S. enterica, the Ti/Tv ratio was observed as 2.134 and 2.780 in inter-operon and in intra-operon IGRs, respectively. The observation in this study indicates that transcribed IGRs might not always have higher polymorphism frequency than the untranscribed IGRs. The lower polymorphism frequency at intra-operon IGRs might be attributed to different events such as the transcription-coupled DNA repair, sequences facilitating translation initiation and avoidance of rho-dependent transcription termination.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2022

Synonymous polymorphism difference relating to codon degeneracy between co-transcribed genes in the genome of Escherichia coli

The previous findings suggest that replication and transcription are two major reasons behind the different substitution patterns of mutations in genomic DNA. In the current work, we have compared the adjacent co-transcribed gene pairs regarding synonymous polymorphism in five different operons in Escherichia coli. It is interesting that the co-transcribed genes were different from each other regarding the polymorphism spectra. The transition to transversion ratio between gene pairs were different due to their compositional differences regarding two-fold degenerate codon and four-fold degenerate codons. Further, the polymorphism spectra difference between the gene pairs was more prominent in four-fold and six-fold degenerate codons than in the two-fold degenerate codons. In case of rpoB and rpoC, the major difference was found at UCC, GUA, CCG, GCU, GGC and CGC codons. Similarly, in case of the other four pairs of co-transcribed genes, the difference was more prominent in the higher degenerate codons than the two-fold degenerate codons. It may be that the restriction of two-fold degenerate codons to transition substitutions only regarding synonymous polymorphism is making these codons different from the higher degeneracy codons in this study.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2022

Micro-colony observation: A rapid and simple approach to count bacterial colony forming units

For enumerating viable bacteria, traditional dilution plating to count colony forming units (CFU) has always been the preferred method in microbiology owing to its simplicity, albeit laborious and time-consuming. Similar CFU counts can be obtained by quantifying growing micro-colonies in conjunction with the perks of a microscope. Here, we employed a simple method of five microliter spotting of differently diluted bacterial culture multiple times on a single Petri dish followed by finding out CFU by counting micro-colonies using a phase-contrast microscope. In this method, the CFU of an Escherichia coli culture can be estimated within a four-hour period. Further, within a ten-hour period, CFU in a culture of Ralstonia solanacearum, a bacterium with a generation time of around 2 h, can be estimated. The CFU number determined by micro-colonies observed is comparable with that obtained by the dilution plating method. Micro-colonies number observed in the early hours of growth (2 h in case of E. coli and 8 h in case of R. solanacearum) were found to remain consistent at later hours, though there was a noticeable increase in the size of the colonies. It suggested that micro-colonies observed in the early hours indeed represent the bacterial number in the culture. Practical applications to this counting method were employed in studying the rifampicin-resistant mutation rate as well as performing the fluctuation test in E. coli. The method described here results in a 90% reduction of labour, time and resources. Thus, the method is likely to be adopted by many microbiologists in their routine laboratory research.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2022

Modified dN/dS for accounting transition and transversion frequency difference and non-sense substitution in genomes

The dN/dS value is estimated in homologous protein coding gene sequences between two closely related organisms for studying selection on the genes. In the usual method of calculation of synonymous (S) and non-synonymous (NS) sites in codons, the transition and transversion rates are considered same as well as no difference of pretermination codons from the other codons regarding NS substitutions is considered. In this study we are proposing a modification in the method by estimating the S and the NS sites in codons by considering difference between the transition and transversion rates and the NS substitutions leading to non-sense codons in pretermination codons. So, the dN/dS value calculated by our approach was higher than that calculated by the earlier method. The modified method was applied in estimating dN/dS in 29 homologous gene sequences of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica. Impact of codon degeneracy and pretermination codons on the dN/dS values estimated by our method were observed clearly. Our method of estimation that considers the above features is a realistic representation of dN/dS values in coding sequences.

evolutionary biology↗

bioRxiv2021

Polymorphism at four-fold degenerate site, but not at the intergenic regions, explains nucleotide compositional strand asymmetry in bacteria

We investigated single nucleotide polymorphism in intergenic regions (IRs) and four-fold degenerate sites (FFS) in genomes of three {gamma}-Proteobacteria and two Firmicutes to understand the mechanism of nucleotide compositional asymmetry between the leading and the lagging strands. Pattern of the polymorphism spectra were alike regarding transitions but variable regarding transversions in the IRs of these bacteria. Contrasting trends of complementary polymorphisms such as C[->]T vs G[->]A as well as A[->]G vs T[->]C in the IRs vindicated similar replication-associated strand asymmetry regarding cytosine and adenine deamination, respectively, across these bacteria. Surprisingly, the polymorphism pattern at FFS was different from that of the IRs and its frequency was always more than the IRs in these bacteria. Further, the polymorphism patterns within a bacterium were inconsistent across the five amino acids, which neither the replication nor the transcription-associated mutations could explain. However, the polymorphism at FFS coincided with amino acid specific codon usage bias in the five bacteria. Further, strand asymmetry in nucleotide composition could be explained by the polymorphism at FFS, not at the IRs. Therefore, polymorphisms at FFS might not be treated as nearly neutral unlike that in IRs in these bacteria.

molecular biology↗

bioRxiv2021

Development of Tribo-Electroceutical Fabrics for Potential Application in Self-sanitizing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Attachment of microbial bodies including coronavirus on the surface of personal protective equipment (PPE) is found to be potential threat of spreading infection. Here, we report the development of a novel tribo-electroceutical fabric (TECF) consisting of commonly available materials namely Nylon, and Silicone Rubber (SR) for the fabrication of protective gloves on Nitrile platform, as a model wearable PPE. A small triboelectric device (2 cm x 2 cm) consisting of SR and Nylon on Nitrile can generate more than 20 volt transient or 41 {micro}W output power, which is capable of charging a capacitor up to 65 V in only [~]50 sec. The novelty of the present work relies on the TECF led anti-microbial activity through the generation of an electric current in saline water. The fabrication of TECF based functional prototype gloves can generate hypochlorite ions through the formation of electrolysed water upon rubbing them with saline water. Further a computational modelling has been employed to reveal the optimum structure and mechanistic pathway of anti-microbial hypochlorite generation. Detailed anti-microbial assays have been performed to establish effectiveness of such TECF based gloves to reduce the risk from life threatening pathogen spreading. The present work provides the rationale to consider the studied TECF, or other material with comparable properties, as material of choice for the development of self-sanitizing PPE in the fight against microbial infections including COVID-19.

microbiology↗