Biology subjects

Ramirez, S.

Publications and source records attributed to Ramirez, S..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Diurnal rhythms of choice: a novel state-dependent drift diffusion model uncovers time-dependent changes in rat decision making

2Time-of-day severely impacts human decision-making, with real-world consequences. Studying shifts in decision-making strategy requires controlled, long timescale behavioral measurement and analyses that can extract insight from time-varying behavior. We introduce two complementary advances to address this gap: an autonomous 24-hour training facility for continuous behavioral measurement during decision-making and an interpretable modeling framework that captures non-stationary decision dynamics from reaction times and choices. Rats were trained on a visual evidence accumulation task across months, generating over a half million trials spanning the circadian period. Our model revealed latent behavioral states characterized by distinct evidence accumulation parameters, including differences in drift rate, bias, and decision-commitment time. These states recur across days and align with feeding schedules and the light-dark cycle, producing periodic fluctuations in performance over 24 hours. Together, these results demonstrate how continuous behavioral sampling combined with generative modeling uncovers long-timescale structure in decision-making obscured by stationary analyses. 1 HIGHLIGHTSO_LI24-hour live-in operant system allows autonomous training in cognitive tasks across months C_LIO_LI24-hour measurements reveal that rat performance fluctuates with time of day C_LIO_LINovel DDM-HMM framework identifies reaction time and accuracy shifts across multiple timescales C_LIO_LIDDM-HMM captures serial dependence in decisions that classic models ignore C_LI

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2026

Monitoring terrestrial vertebrates with airborne DNA in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia

Vertebrates play vital roles in maintaining ecosystem processes and services and serve as valuable indicators of environmental health, making them an important target for monitoring and conservation efforts. Within the environmental DNA (eDNA) toolbox, airborne environmental DNA has recently emerged as a novel approach for vertebrate monitoring. In this study, we evaluated on-site airborne eDNA for terrestrial vertebrate monitoring in the Luangwa Valley savanna in Zambia, which represents a major biodiversity stronghold of largely intact wilderness and with high levels of vertebrate diversity and endemism. Six air samplers were deployed over four days alongside camera traps for validation, and samples were processed using a mobile molecular laboratory. In total, 120 terrestrial vertebrate taxa were detected with airborne eDNA, including 16 of the 17 taxa recorded by camera traps, demonstrating high sensitivity. Notably, 72.5% of taxa were detected on the first day, and a single sampler recovered 61.7% of all taxa; the taxonomic richness incrementally increased with extended sampling efforts, but the magnitude of these increases declined progressively. The detected taxa spanned the four terrestrial vertebrate classes and encompassed a wide range of ecological traits. These results show that airborne eDNA can quickly recover a substantial and representative fraction of local vertebrate diversity within a short sampling window, while extended sampling can improve detection of less common taxa. Despite existing limitations, our findings support the use of airborne eDNA as an efficient and scalable complementary tool for community-level biodiversity assessments in terrestrial ecosystems such as Zambezian savannas.

ecology↗

bioRxiv2025

Psychedelics Relax Priors and Reshape Orbitofrontal Dynamics

Psychedelics such as psilocybin and ketamine are gaining attention as rapid-acting treatments for psychiatric disorders, yet the mechanisms by which they alter cognition remain unclear. A key hypothesis--the REBUS model--proposes that psychedelics relax high-level priors, allowing bottom-up sensory information to exert greater influence over perception and behavior. Here, we test this model in mice performing a free-response perceptual decision-making task that disambiguates prior-driven and sensory-driven decision strategies. Acute administration of psilocybin or ketamine significantly slowed decision times and improved accuracy. Behavioral modeling that combined drift diffusion and GLM-HMM frameworks revealed that these changes were mediated by increased decision thresholds and a marked shift into sensory-engaged cognitive states. Whole-brain c-Fos mapping identified a distributed decision-making network, with psychedelics selectively modulating cortical and subcortical nodes. Calcium imaging in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)--a key region for integrating priors and sensory inputs--revealed preserved decision-related selectivity under psychedelics, while exhibiting reduced neuronal correlations--population-level signatures of weakened top-down influence and relaxed priors. Together, these results provide circuit-level support for the REBUS model, showing that psychedelics reconfigure brain-wide and local dynamics to promote more deliberate, flexible, and sensory-driven decision policies.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2025

A State-Dependent Drift Diffusion Model Reveals Mice Actively Explore A Speed-Accuracy Continuum During Decision-Making

Understanding how animals shift between different decision-making strategies is critical for bridging normative models with naturalistic behavior. While drift diffusion models (DDMs) provide a powerful framework for describing evidence accumulation in two-alternative forced choice (TAFC) tasks, they assume fixed parameters across trials--an assumption often violated in practice. Here, we intro- duce a state-dependent DDM framework in which discrete latent states modulate decision parameters from trial to trial. This approach reveals that mice dynamically switch between impulsive and deliberative decision states that differ in accuracy and response latency, suggesting active exploration of the speed-accuracy trade-off. We uncover rare high-bound states in which mice exhibit deliberation times and ac- curacies approaching those observed in humans. These results raise new questions about the cognitive flexibility of rodent decision-making and offer a foundation for studying how internal states and external variables--such as reward history or uncertainty--influence strategy selection. Our method provides a natural interface for integration with neural recordings and dynamical systems models, offering a path toward identifying the circuit-level mechanisms underlying adaptive decision behavior.

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2025

Evaluation of nanopore sequencing for increasing accessibility of eDNA studies in biodiverse countries

Biodiversity loss is a global challenge of the 21st century. Environmental DNA (eDNA)-based metabarcoding offers a cost- and time-efficient alternative to conventional biodiversity surveys, enabling detection of rare, cryptic, and elusive species from environmental samples. However, limited access to genomic technologies restricts the application of eDNA metabarcoding in highly biodiverse remote regions and low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Here, we directly compared the latest portable nanopore sequencing methods with established Illumina sequencing for vertebrate eDNA metabarcoding of Zambian water samples. Our results show that due to recent improvements in sequencing chemistry and optimized basecalling, nanopore sequencing data can recapitulate or even surpass established protocols, demonstrating the feasibility of in situ biodiversity assessments. eDNA- and camera trap-based species detections had minimal overlap in species detections, suggesting a complementary rather than substituting application of these biodiversity monitoring technologies. We finally demonstrate that our entire eDNA workflow can be successfully implemented in a mobile laboratory under remote field conditions by completing all steps--from sample collection to data analysis--within the Luambe National Park in Zambia. This approach has important implications for capacity building in LMICs and for overcoming limitations associated with sample export.

molecular biology↗

bioRxiv2025

Dynamic Transcriptomic Remodeling in Human Neural Progenitor Cells Reveals Mechanisms for Vision Preservation in Retinitis Pigmentosa Model

Human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs) have shown promise in slowing down retinal degeneration in animal models and are currently being tested in clinical trials for treating retinitis pigmentosa (RP). However, the status of grafted hNPCs and their interaction with host retinal cells over time is largely unknown. Here, we investigated single-cell transcriptomic changes in grafted hNPCs and host retinal cells following injection into a rodent model for RP. Grafted hNPCs and host retinal cells undergo dynamic transcriptomic changes in the degenerative retinal environment. Grafted hNPCs protect vision through multiple mechanisms, including trophic factor support, modulation of metabolic activity, reduction of apoptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation, alongside extracellular matrix remodeling. CellChat analysis revealed a progressive decline in intercellular signaling and communication strength between hNPCs and host retinal cells over time. This study indicates that enhancing trophic factor supports and improving host retinal environment are key targets to enable long-term vision preservation.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

A hippocampal astrocytic sequence emerges during learning and memory

Abstract.The dorsal hippocampus is a heterogeneous structure with numerous cell types involved in generating and maintaining detailed representations of space and time. Prior work has established that pyramidal cells contribute to these crucial aspects of associative memory. For example, hippocampal "time cells" encode temporal information through sequential activity. However, the roles of non-neuronal cell types are less often explored. In this study, we investigated dorsal hippocampal CA1 astrocytes using one-photon calcium imaging in freely moving animals during a contextual fear conditioning paradigm, enabling tracking of a population of glial cells across days. In response to foot shock, astrocytes generated robust calcium-event sequences with a time-compressed structure akin to canonical hippocampal time cells. Upon re-exposure to the conditioned context, we again detected astrocytic sequences -- in the absence of shock -- displaying similar time-compressed structure. Importantly, this phenomenon was not observed in a context different from the initial fear conditioning chamber. Lastly, spontaneous astrocytic activity in the initial conditioning context was associated with behavioral state transitions (e.g. freezing), but this was not observed in a novel context. Taken together, these results suggest a direct role for astrocytes in generating hippocampal representations of associative memory, and future work may continue to study how diverse cell types process temporal features of associative memory.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

CA1 Engram Cell Dynamics Before and After Learning

A fundamental question in neuroscience is how memory formation shapes brain activity at the level of neuronal populations. Recent studies of hippocampal engram cells--neurons identified by learning-induced immediate early gene (IEG) expression--propose that these populations form the cellular substrate for memory. Previous experimental work suggests that cells are recruited into engrams via elevated intrinsic excitability and that learning drives coactivity among these cells to support retrieval. Despite this, an understanding of how engram dynamics evolve across learning and recall remains incomplete. Here, we combined activity-dependent genetic tagging with longitudinal two-photon calcium imaging to track CA1 engram population dynamics before and after fear conditioning. Our results reveal that engram activity is modulated by intrinsic dynamics, behavioral state, and stimulus-cued reactivation. Consistent with the idea that intrinsic dynamics bias engram allocation, spontaneous activity during rest predicted future engram membership--up to two days prior to Fos expression. In parallel, we found sequential activity during locomotion recruited both engram and non-engram cells, but that engram cells were less modulated by velocity. Furthermore, after fear conditioning, within the engram population, we identified a subset of cells that increased their correlations after fear learning, specifically during quiet rest. We also used a trace fear conditioning paradigm to show that conditioned stimulus presentation drove elevated activity and stable correlations amongst engram cells, demonstrating learning-dependent reactivation. Finally, computational modeling of CA3-CA1 circuit dynamics demonstrated that a network with strong excitatory-inhibitory balance, capable of CA3-driven reactivation, is consistent with our experimental results. Together, these results show that engram population dynamics are shaped by spontaneous states, behavior, and memory.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

Multi-Niche Human Bone Marrow On-A-Chip for Studying the Interactions of Adoptive CAR-T Cell Therapies with Multiple Myeloma

Multiple myeloma (MM), a cancer of bone marrow plasma cells, is the second-most common hematological malignancy. However, despite immunotherapies like chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells, relapse is nearly universal. The bone marrow (BM) microenvironment influences how MM cells survive, proliferate, and resist treatment. Yet, it is unclear which BM niches give rise to MM pathophysiology. Here, we present a 3D microvascularized culture system, which models the endosteal and perivascular bone marrow niches, allowing us to study MM-stroma interactions in the BM niche and model responses to therapeutic CAR-T cells. We demonstrated the prolonged survival of cell line-based and patient-derived multiple myeloma cells within our in vitro system and successfully flowed in donor-matched CAR-T cells. We then measured T cell survival, differentiation, and cytotoxicity against MM cells using a variety of analysis techniques. Our MM-on-a-chip system could elucidate the role of the BM microenvironment in MM survival and therapeutic evasion and inform the rational design of next-generation therapeutics. TEASERA multiple myeloma model can study why the disease is still challenging to treat despite options that work well in other cancers.

cancer biology↗

bioRxiv2023

Engram Reactivation Mimics Cellular Signatures of Fear

Engrams, or the physical substrate of memory in the brain, recruit heterogeneous cell-types. Targeted reactivation of neurons processing discrete memories drives the behavioral expression of memory, though the underlying landscape of recruited cells and their real-time responses remain elusive. To understand how artificial stimulation of fear affects intra-hippocampal neuronal and astrocytic dynamics as well as their behavioral consequences, we expressed channelrhodopsin-2 in an activity-dependent manner in dentate gyrus neurons while performing fiber photometry of both cell types in ventral CA1 across learning and memory. Neurons and astrocytes were shock-responsive, while astrocytic calcium events were uniquely modulated by fear conditioning. Notably, optogenetic stimulation of a hippocampus-mediated engram recapitulated coordinated calcium signatures time-locked to freezing that were also observed during natural fear memory recall, suggesting that engram activation alters activity across different cell types within hippocampal circuits during the behavioral expression of fear. Together, our data reveals cell-type specific hippocampal dynamics during freezing behavior and points to neuronal-astrocytic coupling as a shared mechanism enabling the natural and artificial recall of a memory. HighlightsO_LIVentral hippocampal neurons and astrocytes are active during foot shock C_LIO_LICalcium activity is time-locked to freezing during fear conditioning and recall C_LIO_LIOptogenetic reactivation of fear recapitulates cellular signatures seen during recall C_LIO_LIReactivation of a fear memory allows prediction of freezing behavior C_LI

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Chronic activation of a negative engram induces behavioral and cellular abnormalities

Negative memories engage a brain and body-wide stress response in humans that can alter cognition and behavior. Prolonged stress responses induce maladaptive cellular, circuit, and systems-level changes that can lead to pathological brain states and corresponding disorders in which mood and memory are affected. However, its unclear if repeated activation of cells processing negative memories induces similar phenotypes in mice. In this study, we used an activity-dependent tagging method to access neuronal ensembles and assess their molecular characteristics. Sequencing memory engrams in mice revealed that positive (male-to-female exposure) and negative (foot shock) cells upregulated genes linked to anti- and pro-inflammatory responses, respectively. To investigate the impact of persistent activation of negative engrams, we chemogenetically activated them in the ventral hippocampus over three months and conducted anxiety and memory-related tests. Negative engram activation increased anxiety behaviors in both 6- and 14-month-old mice, reduced spatial working memory in older mice, impaired fear extinction in younger mice, and heightened fear generalization in both age groups. Immunohistochemistry revealed changes in microglial and astrocytic structure and number in the hippocampus. In summary, repeated activation of negative memories induces lasting cellular and behavioral abnormalities in mice, offering insights into the negative effects of chronic negative thinking-like behaviors on human health.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Hippocampal engrams generate flexible behavioral responses and brain-wide network states

Memory engrams are both necessary and sufficient to mediate behavioral outputs. Defensive behaviors such as freezing and avoidance are commonly examined during hippocampal-mediated fear engram reactivation, yet how reactivation of these cellular populations across different contexts engages the brain to produce a variety of defensive behaviors is relatively unclear. To address this, we first optogenetically reactivated a tagged fear engram in the dentate gyrus (DG) subregion of the hippocampus across three distinct contexts. We found that there were differential amounts of light-induced freezing depending on the size of the context in which reactivation occurred: mice demonstrated robust light-induced freezing in the most spatially restricted of the three contexts but not in the largest. We then utilized graph theoretical analyses to identify brain-wide alterations in cFos co-activation during engram reactivation across the smallest and largest contexts. Our manipulations conferred greater positive cFos correlations and recruited regions spanning putative fear and defense systems as hubs in the respective networks. Moreover, reactivating DG-mediated engrams generated network topologies across experimental conditions, emphasizing both shared and distinct features. By identifying and manipulating the circuits supporting memory function, as well as their corresponding brain-wide activity patterns, it is thereby possible to resolve systems-level biological mechanisms mediating memorys capacity to modulate behavioral states. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTImplementing appropriate defensive behaviors across disparate environments is essential for survival. Memories can be used to select these responses. Recent work identified and artificially manipulated cellular ensembles within the hippocampus that mediate fear memory recall, yet how these populations engage brain-wide pathways that mediate defensive behaviors under environmental contingencies is unclear. We demonstrated here that reactivation across environments of various sizes elicits different behavioral responses and corresponding brain-wide network dynamics. These findings establish the flexibility of memory-bearing ensembles in generating brain and behavior states.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2023

Erasable Hippocampal Neural Signatures Predict Memory Discrimination

Memories involving the hippocampus can take several days to consolidate, challenging efforts to uncover the neuronal signatures underlying this process. Using calcium imaging in freely moving mice, we tracked the hippocampal dynamics underlying memory formation across a ten-day contextual fear conditioning (CFC) task. Following learning, context-specific place field remapping correlated with memory performance. To causally test whether these hippocampal dynamics support memory consolidation, we induced amnesia in a group of mice by pharmacologically blocking protein synthesis immediately following learning. We found that halting protein synthesis following learning paradoxically accelerated cell turnover and also arrested learning-related remapping, paralleling the absence of remapping observed in untreated mice that exhibited poor memory expression. Finally, coordinated neural activity that emerged following learning was dependent on intact protein synthesis and predicted memory-related freezing behavior. We conclude that context-specific place field remapping and the development of coordinated ensemble activity require protein synthesis and underlie contextual fear memory consolidation.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2022

Theta phase specific modulation of hippocampal memory neurons

I.The theta rhythm, a quasi-periodic 4-10 Hz oscillation, is observed during memory processing in the hippocampus, with different phases of theta hypothesized to separate independent streams of information related to the encoding and recall of memories. At the cellular level, the discovery of hippocampal memory cells (engram neurons), as well as the modulation of memory recall through optogenetic activation of these cells, has provided evidence that certain memories are stored, in part, in a sparse ensemble of neurons in the hippocampus. In previous research, however, engram reactivation has been carried out using open loop stimulation at fixed frequencies; the relationship between engram neuron reactivation and ongoing network oscillations has not been taken into consideration. To address this concern, we implemented a closed-loop reactivation of engram neurons that enabled phase-specific stimulation relative to theta oscillations in the local field potential. Using this real-time approach, we tested the impact of activating engram neurons during the peak (encoding phase) and trough (recall phase) of theta oscillations. Consistent with previously hypothesized functions of theta oscillations in memory function, we show that stimulating engram neurons at the trough of theta is more effective in eliciting behavioral recall than either fixed frequency stimulation or stimulation at the peak of theta. Moreover, phase-specific trough stimulation is accompanied by an increase in the coupling between gamma and theta oscillations in CA1 hippocampus. Oure results provide a causal link between phase-specific activation of engram cells and the behavioral expression of memory.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2022

Chronic Gq activation of ventral hippocampal neurons and astrocytes differentially affects memory and behavior

Network dysfunction is implicated in numerous diseases and psychiatric disorders, and the hippocampus serves as a common origin for these abnormalities. To test the hypothesis that chronic modulation of neurons and astrocytes induces impairments in cognition, we activated the hM3D(Gq) pathway in CaMKII+ neurons or GFAP+ astrocytes within the ventral hippocampus across 3, 6 and 9 months. CaMKII-hM3Dq activation impaired fear extinction at 3 months and acquisition at 9 months. Both CaMKII-hM3Dq manipulation and aging had differential effects on anxiety and social interaction. GFAP-hM3Dq activation impacted fear memory at 6 and 9 months. GFAP-hM3Dq activation impacted anxiety in the open field only at the earliest time point. CaMKII-hM3Dq activation modified the number of microglia, while GFAP-hM3Dq activation impacted microglial morphological characteristics, but neither affected these measures in astrocytes. Overall, our study elucidates how distinct cell types can modify behavior through network dysfunction, while adding a more direct role for glia in modulating behavior. HighlightsO_LICaMKII- and GFAP-Gq activation impacted memory, anxiety, and social behaviors. C_LIO_LINovel environment exploration was affected by CaMKII- and GFAP-Gq activation. C_LIO_LICaMKII-Gq modified microglial number, while GFAP-Gq affected microglial morphology. C_LIO_LINeither cell manipulation affected astrocytic number or morphology. C_LI

animal behavior and cognition↗

bioRxiv2022

Basolateral amygdala astrocytes are engaged by the acquisition and expression of a contextual fear memory

Astrocytes are key cellular regulators within the brain. The basolateral amygdala (BLA) is implicated in fear memory processing, yet most research has entirely focused on neuronal mechanisms, despite a significant body of work implicating astrocytes in learning and memory. In the present study, we used in vivo fiber photometry to record from amygdalar astrocytes across fear learning, recall, and three separate periods of extinction. We found that BLA astrocytes robustly responded to foot shock during acquisition, that their activity remained remarkably elevated across days in comparison to unshocked control animals, and that their increased activity persisted throughout extinction. Further, we found that astrocytes responded to the initiation and termination of freezing bouts during contextual fear conditioning and recall, and this behavior-locked pattern of activity did not persist throughout the extinction sessions. Importantly, astrocytes do not display these changes while exploring a novel context, suggesting that these observations are context or memory-dependent. Chemogenetic inhibition of fear ensembles in the BLA did not affect freezing behavior or astrocytic calcium dynamics. Overall, our work presents a real-time role for amygdalar astrocytes in fear processing and provides new insight into the emerging role of these cells in cognition and behavior. Significance StatementWe show that basolateral amygdala astrocytes are robustly responsive to footshock, exhibit unique calcium event characteristics following contextual fear acquisition, and ramp up activity at the initiation and termination of freezing bouts during fear conditioning and recall. This astrocytic calcium response to freezing behavior is not observed during extinction sessions, despite unique calcium events continuing through three days of training compared to no-shock controls. We find that astrocytes display context specific changes in calcium signaling, but chemogenetic inhibition of BLA fear ensembles does not impact freezing behavior or calcium dynamics. These findings show that astrocytes play a key, real-time role in fear learning and memory.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2022

Porcn is essential for growth and invagination of the mammalian optic cup

Microphthalmia, anophthalmia, and coloboma (MAC) are congenital ocular malformations causing 25% of childhood blindness. The X-linked disorder Focal Dermal Hypoplasia is frequently associated with MAC and results from mutations in Porcn, a membrane bound O-acyl transferase required for palmitoylation of Wnts to activate multiple Wnt-dependent pathways. Wnt/{beta}-catenin signaling is suppressed in the anterior neural plate for initiation of eye formation and is subsequently required during differentiation of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Non-canonical Wnts are critical for early eye formation in frog and zebrafish, however, it is unclear whether this also applies to mammals. We performed ubiquitous conditional inactivation of Porcn in mouse around the eye field stage. In PorcnCKO, optic vesicles (OV) arrest in growth and fail to form an optic cup. Ventral proliferation is significantly decreased in the mutant OV, with a concomitant increase in apoptotic cell death. While pan-ocular transcription factors such as PAX6, SIX3, LHX2, PAX2 are present, indicative of maintenance of OV identity, regional expression of VSX2, MITF, OTX2 and NR2F2 is downregulated. Failure of RPE differentiation in PorcnCKO is consistent with downregulation of the Wnt/{beta}-catenin effector LEF1, starting around 2.5 days after inactivation. This suggests that Porcn inactivation affects signaling later than a potential requirement for Wnts to promote eye field formation. Altogether, our data shows a novel requirement for Porcn in regulating growth and morphogenesis of the OV, likely by controlling proliferation and survival. In FDH patients with ocular manifestations, growth deficiency during early ocular morphogenesis may be the underlying cause for microphthalmia.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2022

Composition of a spatial engram in mouse dentate gyrus

The dentate gyrus (DG) of hippocampus is hypothesized to act as a pattern separator that distinguishes between similar input patterns during memory formation and retrieval. Sparse ensembles of DG cells associated with learning and memory, i.e. engrams, have been labeled and manipulated to recall novel context memories. Functional studies of DG cell activity have demonstrated the spatial specificity and stability of DG cells during navigation. To reconcile how the DG contributes to separating global context as well as individual navigational routes, we trained mice to perform a delayed-non-match-to-position (DNMP) T-maze task and labeled DG neurons during performance of this task on a novel T-maze. The following day, mice navigated a second environment: the same T-maze, the same T-maze with one route permanently blocked but still visible, or a novel open field. We found that the degree of engram reactivation across days differed based on the traversal of maze routes, such that mice traversing only one arm had higher ensemble overlap than chance but less overlap than mice running the full two-route task. Mice experiencing the open field had similar ensemble sizes to the other groups but only chance-level ensemble reactivation. Ensemble overlap differences could not be explained by behavioral variability across groups, nor did behavioral metrics correlate to degree of ensemble reactivation. Together, these results support the hypothesis that DG contributes to spatial navigation memory and that partially non-overlapping ensembles encode different routes within the context of different environments. HighlightsO_LIImmediate-early-gene labeling strategy revealed spatial navigation ensembles in DG C_LIO_LISub-ensembles encode separate maze routes within a larger task context C_LIO_LIEnsemble reactivation does not correlate with behavioral variables C_LI

neuroscience↗