Nuzzi, D. | Search bioRxiv

bioRxiv2026

TRAINING SESSION INTERVALS SHAPE FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY IN SPATIAL LEARNING: A BRAIN-WIDE ANALYSIS

A substantial body of research indicates that spaced training, characterized by longer inter-trial intervals between training epochs, consistently outperforms massed training in promoting durable memory. To investigate the neural mechanisms underlying this difference, we quantified c-Fos expression across 126 brain regions and mapped network activity following both spatial and cue-based learning under massed and spaced training protocols. While both training regimens (spaced and massed) and memory types (spatial and cue-based) produced small-world networks with similar overall topology, they differed in the functional organization of specific circuits. Massed spatial training preferentially activated hippocampal-thalamic and claustrum-basal ganglia-thalamic pathways. In contrast, spaced spatial training promoted stronger cortico-thalamic interactions and enhanced communication between the hippocampus and basal ganglia, indicating a shift toward a more integrated, cortically mediated network. These findings suggest that temporal spacing of training reorganizes memory-related brain networks, enhancing cortical-thalamic dynamics to support more efficient spatial memory. Finally, spaced networks were more sensitive to targeted disruptions of key connector hubs--identified through betweenness centrality analysis--than massed networks, pointing to a potential systems-level trade-off.

neuroscience↗

bioRxiv2024

Planning-while-acting: addressing the continuous dynamics of planning and action in a sequential embodied task

Everyday tasks, such as selecting routes when driving or preparing meals, require making sequences of embodied decisions, in which planning and action processes are intertwined. In this study, we address how people make sequential embodied decisions, requiring balancing be-tween immediate affordances and long-term utilities of alternative action plans. We designed a novel virtually embodied task in which participants controlled an avatar tasked with "crossing rivers" by jumping across rocks. The task permitted us to assess how participants balanced between immediate jumping affordances ("safe" versus "risky" jumps) and the utility (length) of the ensuing paths to the goal. Behavioral and computational analyses revealed that partici-pants planned ahead their path to the goal rather than simply focusing on the most immediate jumping affordances. Furthermore, spatial and embodied components of the task influenced participants decision strategies, as participants current direction of movement and momen-tum influenced their choice between safe and risky jumps. Additionally, participants showed (pre)planning before making the first jump, but they continued deliberating during it, with movement speed decreasing at decision points and when approaching them. Computational modeling indicates that farsighted participants who assigned greater weight to the utility of future jumps showed a better performance, highlighting the usefulness of planning in embodied settings. Finally, analysing participants performance across trials indicates that during the experiment, they become faster in moving and deciding but they do not change their overall strategy. Our findings underscore the importance of studying decision-making and planning in ecologically valid, embodied settings, providing new insights into the interplay between action and cognition in real-world planning-while-acting scenarios. Significance statementEveryday activities, such as navigating a crowded street or assembling objects, often involve contin-uous interactions between planning and action. Yet, it is unclear how people balance opportunities for action (affordances) with long-term planning in embodied settings. In a novel virtually embod-ied task, in which people have to "cross rivers" by making a series of jumps across rocks, we found that they plan ahead their path to the goal rather than simply focusing on the immediate jumping affordances - and they continue deliberating during movement. Crucially, spatial and embodied constraints, such as movement direction and momentum, influenced decision-making, challenging traditional models that treat decision and action as distinct stages and highlighting the importance of studying decisions in ecologically valid, embodied settings.

animal behavior and cognition↗