Protein-state dysregulation and sex-specific neurodevelopmental signatures in schizophrenia forebrain organoids
Schizophrenia is highly heritable, yet the molecular mechanisms linking genetic risk to abnormal human brain development remain poorly understood. To address this, we generated dorsal forebrain organoids from 17 individuals with idiopathic schizophrenia and 17 age- and sex-matched controls and profiled them across multiple molecular layers, including single-nucleus transcriptomics, quantitative proteomics, metabolomics and deep post-translational modification (PTM) analysis. The organoids reproducibly modelled early cortical development and showed largely similar cellular composition between schizophrenia and control groups. Surprisingly, transcriptomic differences were relatively limited, with the strongest cell-type-specific changes observed in Cajal-Retzius neurons. In contrast, proteomic and particularly PTM-level analyses revealed widespread molecular disruption affecting pathways involved in neuronal migration, neurite development, synaptic function, protein kinase signalling, extracellular matrix organisation and lipid metabolism. Many of the earliest disease-associated changes emerged at the level of protein phosphorylation, consistent with altered neuronal maturation and neurite dynamics. At later developmental stages, schizophrenia organoids showed reduced abundance of synaptic proteins, fewer synaptic puncta and evidence of dysregulated retinoic acid and YAP1 signalling. Notably, most disease-associated alterations occurred independently of changes in transcript or protein abundance, indicating that key aspects of schizophrenia biology are encoded in protein state rather than expression level. These findings identify sex-specific dysregulation of protein state as a major molecular feature of schizophrenia and demonstrate the value of multi-layer proteomic approaches for uncovering disease mechanisms missed by transcriptomics alone.