Biology subjects

Genin, G. M.

Publications and source records attributed to Genin, G. M..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Tunable Magnetorheological Elastomer Substrates for Studying Mechano-Genetic Interactions in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common inherited cardiac disease. While sarcomeric genomic variants drive HCM, a role for mechanical stress in disease pathogenesis is increasingly appreciated. However, existing in vitro models of HCM rely on model systems (e.g., hydrogels) with static mechanical properties, precluding investigation of how dynamic mechanical loading interacts with genetic susceptibility during disease initiation. Here, we leveraged a dynamically tunable magnetorheological elastomer (MRE) platform to model progressive mechanical stiffening in order to study mechano-genetic interactions in human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) derived cardiomyocytes harboring an HCM-associated MYBPC3 frameshift (MYBPC3fs) loss-of-function variant. Dynamic stiffening selectively unmasked pathological structural remodeling in MYBPC3fs cardiomyocytes while producing only modest changes in isogenic controls, suggesting that MYBPC3fs confers heightened mechanosensitivity. In MYBPC3fs cardiomyocytes, mechanical stiffening drove hypertrophic remodeling, sarcomere disorganization, nuclear remodeling, dysregulated NFAT3 signaling, and aberrant cell-cycle activity. MRE stiffening also drove fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition in primary cardiac fibroblasts, recapitulating early fibrotic remodeling. Together, these findings position dynamically tunable MRE substrates as a human-relevant platform for dissecting mechano-genetic disease mechanisms and evaluating therapies targeting mechanotransduction pathways in HCM.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2026

Progressive Actomyosin Remodeling Defining a Structured Podocyte Injury Response in Nephrotic Syndrome

Nephrotic syndrome, the leading cause of chronic kidney disease worldwide, is associated with injury and eventual loss of podocytes, the specialized epithelial cells that form the final layer of the kidney's filtration apparatus. The progression from injury to loss is largely irreversible. However, some forms of nephrotic syndrome undergo remission, suggesting that injured podocytes may retain a capacity for repair, the structural basis of which remains unknown. Podocytes respond to injury by the stereotypical morphological change known as foot process effacement (FPE), which can be visualized using transmission electron microscopy. Using modified ultrastructure expansion microscopy (U-ExM) protocol combined with super-resolution microscopy, we discovered that injured podocytes exhibit a three-stage progression of FPE maturation, with kinetics determined by the degree of actomyosin contractility. Through longitudinal study of adriamycin-induced nephropathy in mice, we identified three sequential stages of actomyosin reorganization within the sarcomere-like structures (SLSs) that define the injury response: focal infiltration of myosin IIA into synaptopodin-rich foot processes (Stage 1), disordered intermingling of synaptopodin/myosin IIA (Stage 2), and the formation of highly organized periodic contractile arrays oriented perpendicular to the direction of capillary blood flow (Stage 3). Longitudinal quantification revealed predictable temporal dynamics, with mature Stage 3 predominating by day 7-9 post-injury. To determine whether this sequence is conserved in human disease, we analyzed kidney biopsies from patients with minimal change disease, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, membranous nephropathy, and diabetic nephropathy. The same three stages were present across all four diseases, and their distribution tracked disease course: acute podocytopathies exhibited heterogeneous early-stage patterns, whereas chronic injuries converged on uniform, mature SLS organization. These findings demonstrate that podocyte injury is a graded, potentially reversible process rather than a binary switch. They identify structured actomyosin remodeling as a conserved wound response across mechanistically distinct kidney diseases and suggest that therapeutic strategies targeting specific stages of this progression could alter the trajectory of diverse glomerular diseases.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2026

Synaptopodin enables directional mechanoadaptation of integrin-based adhesions

The attachment of cells to their substrate through adhesion complexes is fundamental to tissue architecture and function. These adhesions are inherently optimized to resist shear forces parallel to the substrate, yet certain specialized cells must also withstand substantial perpendicular forces. How cells adapt their adhesion machinery to resist forces in different directions has remained unclear. In the kidney, podocytes experience perpendicular forces from pressurized filtrate flow while maintaining attachment to the glomerular basement membrane through integrin-based adhesions. Here we show that synaptopodin converts adhesions from shear-resistant to perpendicular force-resistant structures through coordinated reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton and adhesion complexes. Using an inertial force application system, we demonstrate that synaptopodin triggers force-dependent redistribution of {beta}1-integrin to the cell periphery specifically in response to perpendicular loading, while synaptopodin-deficient cells lack this directional adaptation and detach. This mechanism operates in multiple cell types and is physiologically essential: synaptopodin-null mice subjected to elevated glomerular pressure develop significant proteinuria and podocyte foot process effacement. These findings reveal a molecular basis for directional mechanoadaptation, whereby a single protein enables cells to reconfigure their adhesion architecture in response to the direction of applied force.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2026

Orthogonal Force Balance Between Contractility and Shear Stress Governs Podocyte Dynamics

Maintenance of tissue barriers under mechanical stress represents a fundamental biological challenge across organ systems. In the kidney, podocyte cells withstand highly variable hemodynamic forces while preserving a tensioned, nanostructured filtration barrier. Dysregulation of this barrier leads to significant pathology, but the mechanical principles underlying homeostasis of cells against flow of filtrates have not yet been identified. Here, we uncover a counterintuitive mechanical homeostasis mechanism whereby podocyte attachment depends on a dynamic balance between external fluid shear stress and internal cellular contractility. Integrated biomechanical modeling and experiment reveal a previously unrecognized mechanosensing circuit that optimizes integrin distribution at foot process peripheries. Our mathematical framework for cell-matrix adhesion stability reveals, surprisingly, that reducing blood pressure can worsen outcomes when cell contractility is impaired, contrary to clinical belief that lowering blood pressure universally benefits cellular adhesion and kidney function. We validated this principle through mouse models with manipulated blood pressure and myosin inhibition, demonstrating that concurrent reduction of both shear stress and contractility worsens podocyte injury and proteinuria. Super-resolution microscopy confirms our predicted integrin redistribution patterns under these mechanical perturbations. These findings establish a fundamental mechanobiological principle applicable beyond nephrology, and suggest potential treatment pathways targeting non-equilibrium steady states.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2025

A Micro-Engineered Heart Tissue Model of Desmin-related Cardiomyopathy Caused by Mutant αB Crystalin

Protein quality control (PQC) is essential for maintaining sarcomere integrity in cardiomyocytes. Crystallin B chain (CRYAB) R120G mutation disrupts CRYABs chaperone activity, leading to aggregation of CRYAB and its client proteins (including Desmin), leading to Desmin-related cardiomyopathy (DRM). Prior experimental systems for modeling DRM linked to CRYAB require massive overexpression of CRYAB mutant isoforms, raising questions about translational relevance. Here, we establish the first model of CRYAB-linked DRM that uses genome-edited hiPSC together with isogenic controls, allowing us to study the impact of mutant CRYAB expressed at near endogenous levels. Within micro-engineered heart tissues (HT), CRYAB-R120G mutant hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes recapitulated key DRM hallmarks, including Desmin and CRYAB aggregation, contractile dysfunction, and increased vulnerability to PQC pathway inhibition. CRYAB-R120G mutant HT also exhibited dysfunctional calcium-contraction coupling, which exacerbated contractile deficits at higher pacing frequencies. JAK1 inhibition with Itacitinib partially restored contractile function at higher pacing frequencies, suggesting JAK1 inhibition as a viable therapeutic strategy. By preserving human-specific structural and functional features, our {micro}HT platform enables mechanistic characterization of proteotoxic cardiomyopathies and offers a scalable system for targeted drug screening.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2025

3D-printing-assisted, microfabricated devices reveal hierarchical and temporal mechanosensing in high-density fibroblast culture

Understanding how cells integrate mechanical forces across multiple directions, length scales, and timescales remains a fundamental challenge in mechanobiology. Deciphering how cells integrate this information is particularly important in the context of wound healing, where the timing and duration of the fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition can determine healing outcomes. Here, we discovered that fibroblasts in engineered tissues respond to directional anisotropy in stress through a hierarchical temporal cascade, with individual cell elongation (24 hr) preceding collective alignment (40 hr), which then drives -smooth muscle actin expression and myofibroblast transition (96h). To enable this discovery, we developed a modified hydrogel-assisted stereolithographic elastomer (HASTE) prototyping platform to incorporate a detergent that improves wettability of template agar hydrogels by poly(dimethylsiloxane) elastomer. HASTE allowed rapid prototyping of intricate 3D micropost arrays that provides isotropic (8-post) versus anisotropic (4-post) boundary conditions. Fibroblasts sensed and responded to stress directionality before bulk tissue reorganization occurs. Computational modeling predicted steady-state activation patterns based on initial stress anisotropy rather than magnitude, and our experiments reveal that reaching this state requires sequential mechanosensitive processes operating across distinct timescales. This temporal hierarchy persists even when extensive cell-cell contacts might be expected to mask matrix-mediated mechanical signals. Our findings demonstrate that fibroblast mechanosensing involves adaptive responses encoded through progressive cell and tissue reorganization. Results provide insight into how nanoscale mechanosensing scales up to direct tissue-level organization, with implications for understanding wound healing, understanding fibrosis, and engineering functional tissue replacements.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2025

Chemo-mechanotherapy of fibrosis: dynamic control of biological materials through tissue-architecture-dependent crosslink disruption

Extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness drives cell fate, but tissues are nonlinear and difficult to modify chemically without harming patients. Here, we show that nonlinear mechanical responses of fibrous and porous tissues can be controlled by mechanically modulating crosslinks. Through integrated in vivo, in vitro, and computational approaches, we found that physiological dynamic stretching disrupts pathological advanced glycation end-product (AGE) crosslink-induced fibrogenesis in an architecture-dependent manner. This was effective in lung-like porous scaffolds but not in liver-like fibrous matrices, revealing a critical structure-property relationship. Computational and in vitro models established that this modulates cell-ECM feedback, and that controlling mechanical crosslinking modulates key nonlinearity of networked solids. This discovery inspired a non-invasive, "mechanotherapuetic" ventilation protocol, which reversed pulmonary fibrosis in mice by physically disrupting ECM pathological crosslinks. The therapeutic efficacy was further amplified when combined with pharmacological AGE inhibition. These findings establish design principles for dynamically reprogrammable biological materials and mechano-targeted therapies.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2025

Tendon fibroblast inflammatory responses depend on NF-κβ and JAK/STAT signaling and alter mechanotransduction pathways

Tendon pathologies, including both chronic injuries and acute tendon tears, are some of the most common musculoskeletal injuries. Recent studies have suggested the importance of inflammation in the healing process in both acute and chronic tendon injury. However, there remain gaps in knowledge that hinder progress in the development of therapeutics to improve healing. A more complete characterization of the inflammatory response in tendon is needed, by defining the relative roles of different molecular pathways, and determining how these pathways interact with tendon mechanobiology. To investigate these questions, an in vitro model was developed, wherein the complexity of the in vivo healing environment was simulated by applying M1 macrophage conditioned media (M1-CM) to tendon fibroblasts (TFs). Characterization of the M1-CM and its effect on TFs revealed a robust inflammatory response, including upregulation of over 500 genes and increased secretion of several cytokines in TFs. The NF-{kappa}{beta} and JAK/STAT signaling pathways were necessary for the response to M1-CM, and each pathway was responsible for different downstream responses to inflammation in TFs. When considering the role of mechanical loading in tendon responses to inflammation, it was found that TF responses to loading were altered by the presence of an inflammatory stimulus. Analysis of the genes that responded differently to loading with inflammation present suggested changes in pathways involving extracellular matrix organization and G protein signaling. Mathematical modeling based upon these results revealed time-dependent suppression of mechanosensitivity, suggesting that therapeutic timing of inflammatory or anti-inflammatory interventions could restore or attenuate mechanical responsiveness to modulate rehabilitation outcomes. Results reveal that inflammation disrupts mechanosensitivity in tendon healing, and suggest potential pathways for therapeutic intervention.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2025

Musculoskeletal architecture of the shoulder: A comparative anatomy study in bats and mice informing human rotator cuff function

Overhead motion in humans often leads to shoulder injuries, a consequence of the evolutionary trade-off in glenohumeral joint anatomy that balances stability with mobility. Bats consistently engage in overhead motion during flight, subjecting their shoulders to substantial loading throughout their relatively long lifespan. Remarkably, despite the demands placed on a bats shoulder, instability and rotator cuff tears, which could be fatal to bats in short order, are not observed in nature. We were thus inspired to study functional adaptations in the shoulders of bats that enable this overhead motion. Comparative anatomical studies of the shoulders of bats and mice, similarly-sized quadrupeds, were performed and interpreted using a mathematical model. Scapular anatomy indicated a more prominent role for the infraspinatus muscle in the bat compared to the mouse. Measurements of bat and mice shoulders revealed that the bat glenoid had a larger curvature and arc length than that of mice, providing a larger articulating surface area with and deeper enclosing surface of the humeral head. Modeling results predicted that the bat shoulder is stable over a dramatically larger range of angles compared to the mouse shoulder. These results suggested that adaptations to constraints imposed by the bony anatomy and rotator cuff tendons of the shoulder may contribute to the ability of bats to sustain overhead motion in a high stress, repeated loading environment without injury. Results suggest that bats have evolved unique adaptations in their glenohumeral bony anatomy that reduce stress on the supraspinatus, enhance joint stability, and optimize strength across a broad range of motion.

physiology↗

bioRxiv2025

Adhesive implant interfaces prevent fibrosis by disrupting mechanobiological feedback

Fibrotic encapsulation around medical implants affects millions of patients annually. Current approaches targeting inflammation or implant material properties have failed clinically, but the mechanical origins of implant-induced fibrosis remain unexplored. Here, we demonstrate that directional imbalance of mechanical forces ("tension anisotropy") is the primary driver of fibroblast activation at implant-tissue interfaces, and that it can be eliminated through adhesive bonding strategies. Computational modeling reveals a mechanistic basis for successful adhesive anti-fibrotic interfaces: conventional sutured implants generate highly anisotropic stress fields between discrete suture anchor points that activate fibroblasts, while adhesive interfaces distribute forces isotropically, maintaining a mechanical environment that does not activate fibroblasts. In vivo experiments from the literature across multiple animal models confirm these predictions: as predicted, adhesive interfaces completely prevent fibrotic capsule formation for up to 12 weeks across diverse organs, while maintaining identical implant composition and geometry compared to sutured controls. Results establish tension anisotropy as a mechanical regulator of implant fibrosis and provide a mechanistic foundation explaining why adhesive interfaces succeed where all previous anti-fibrotic strategies have failed. By addressing the root mechanical cause of fibrosis, this mechanobiology-driven approach may enable a universal approach for preventing fibrosis across all categories of implantable medical devices. Significance statementMillions of patients suffer from medical device failure due to fibrotic encapsulation, in which a surgically implanted item such as pacemaker leads or a vascular graft loses function by becoming covered with scar tissue. Implants affixed to soft tissues by sutures are especially prone to this form of failure, but implants affixed with a recently invented adhesive are not. We present the discovery that directional imbalance of forces ("tension anisotropy") drives conversion of healing tissue into scar tissue. Conventional sutured implants create highly anisotropic stress fields between anchor points that activate fibroblasts, while adhesive interfaces distribute forces isotropically, attenuating scarring. This mechanistic insight explains why adhesive implant-tissue interfaces successfully prevent fibrotic capsule formation across multiple animal models and organ systems, where all previous anti-fibrotic approaches have failed. By addressing root mechanical causes of fibrotic remodeling, this discovery provides a pathway for clinical remediation of fibrotic encapsulation.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2024

Domain Structure and Interface Control of Mechanical Stiffness in Sustainable Cellulose Bio-nanocomposites

Renewable and biodegradable plastics derived from soy protein isolate (SPI) offer a promising alternative to conventional petroleum-based plastics, particularly for film-grade bioplastics applications such as plastic bags. However, even with reinforcement from cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), their mechanical properties including stiffness lag behind those of petroleum-based plastics. To identify pathways for improving CNC-reinforced SPI composites, we studied stiffening mechanisms by interpreting experimental data using homogenization models that accounted for CNC agglomeration and the formation of CNC/SPI interphases. To model effects of surface modification of CNCs with polydopamine (polyDOPA), we incorporated two key mechanisms: enhanced CNC dispersion and modified CNC-SPI interfacial interactions. Models accounted for interphases surrounding CNCs, arising from physicochemical interactions with the polyDOPA-modified CNC surfaces. Consistent wih experimental observations of polyDOPA modification enhancing mechanical properties through both increased spatial distribution of CNCs and matrix-filler interactions, results demonstrated that improved dispersion and interfacial bonding contribute to increased composite stiffness. Results highlight the potential of biodegradable CNC/SPI bio-nanocomposites as sustainable plastic alternatives, and suggest pathways for further enhancing their mechanical properties.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2024

Critical Spacing in Cell-Matrix Mechanical Feedback Controls Tissue Condensation

Biological tissues exhibit phase transitions governed by mechanical feedback between cells and their extracellular matrix (ECM). We demonstrate through bio-chemo-mechanical modeling that this emergent behavior arises from competing physical effects: increasing matrix stiffness enhances individual cell activation while simultaneously weakening long-range mechanical communication. This competition establishes a critical cell spacing threshold (80-160 {micro}m) that precisely matches experimental observations across diverse cell types and collagen densities. Our model reveals that the critical stretch ratio at which fibrous networks transition from compliant to strain-stiffening governs this threshold through the formation of tension bands between neighboring cells. These tension bands create a mechanical percolation network that drives the collective phase transition in tissue behavior. Our model explains how fibrous architecture controls emergent mechanical properties in biological systems and offers insight into both the physics of fiber-reinforced composite materials under active stress, and into potential mechanical interventions for fibrotic disorders.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2023

Stability of navigation in catheter-based endovascular procedures

Endovascular procedures provide surgeons and other interventionalists with minimally invasive methods to treat vascular diseases by passing guidewires, catheters, sheaths and treatment devices into the vasculature to and navigate toward a treatment site. The efficiency of this navigation affects patient outcomes, but is frequently compromised by catheter "herniation", in which the catheter-guidewire system bulges out from the intended endovascular pathway so that the interventionalist can no longer advance it. Here, we showed herniation to be a bifurcation phenomenon that can be predicted and controlled using mechanical characterizations of catheter-guidewire systems and patientspecific clinical imaging. We demonstrated our approach in laboratory models and, retrospectively, in patients who underwent procedures involving transradial neurovascular procedures with an endovascular pathway from the wrist, up in the arm, around the aortic arch, and into the neurovasculature. Our analyses identified a mathematical navigation stability criterion that predicted herniation in all of these settings. Results show that herniation can be predicted through bifurcation analysis, and provide a framework for selecting catheter-guidewire systems to avoid herniation in specific patient anatomy.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2022

A Self-Healing, Viscoelastic Hydrogel Promotes Healing of Brain Lesions

Brain lesions can arise from traumatic brain injury, infection, and craniotomy. Although injectable hydrogels show promise for promoting healing of lesions and health of surrounding tissue, enabling cellular ingrowth and restoring neural tissue continue to be challenging. We hypothesized that these challenges arise in part from viscoelastic mismatch between the hydrogel and the brain parenchyma, and tested this hypothesis by developing and evaluating a self-healing hydrogel that mimicked both the composition and viscoelasticity of native brain parenchyma. The hydrogel was crosslinked by dynamic boronate ester bonds between phenylboronic acid grafted hyaluronic acid (HA-PBA) and dopamine grafted gelatin (Gel-Dopa). This HA-PBA/Gel-Dopa hydrogel could be injected into a lesion cavity in a shear-thinning manner with rapid hemostasis, high tissue adhesion and efficient self-healing. We tested this in an in vivo mouse model of brain lesions and found the hydrogel to support neural cell infiltration, decrease astrogliosis and glial scars, and close the lesions. The results suggest a role for viscoelasticity in brain lesion healing, and motivate additional experimentation in larger animals as the technology progresses towards potential application in humans.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2022

Multimodal Thrombectomy Device for Treatment of Acute Deep Venous Thrombosis

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a potentially deadly medical condition that is costly to treat and impacts thousands of Americans every year. DVT is characterized by the formation of blood clots within the deep venous system of the body. If a DVT dislodges it can lead to venous thromboembolism (VTE) and pulmonary embolism (PE), both of which can lead to significant morbidity or death. Current treatment options for DVT are limited in both effectiveness and safety, in part because the treatment of the DVT cannot be confined to a defined sequestered treatment zone. We therefore developed and tested a thrombectomy device that enables the sequesteration of a DVT to a defined treatment zone during fragmentation and evacuation. We observed that, compared to a predicate thrombectomy device, the sequestered approach reduced distal DVT embolization during ex vivo thrombectomy. The sequestered approach also facilitated isovolumetric infusion and suction that enabled clearance of the sequestered treatment zone without significantly impacting vein wall diameter. Results suggest that our novel device using sequestered therapy holds promise for the treatment of high risk large-volume DVTs.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2021

Effects of tendon viscoelasticity in the distribution of forces over sutures in a model tendon-to-bone repair

Tears to the rotator cuff often require surgical repair. These repairs often culminate in re-tearing when sutures break through the tendon in the weeks following repair. Although numerous studies have been performed to identify suturing strategies that reduce this risk by balancing forces across sutures, none have accounted for how the viscoelastic nature of tendon influences load sharing. With the aim of providing insight into this problem, we studied how tendon viscoelasticity, tendon stiffness, and suture anchor spacing affect this balancing of forces across sutures. Results from a model of a three-row sutured re-attachment demonstrated that optimized distributions of suture stiffnesses and of the spacing of suture anchors can balance the forces across sutures to within a few percent, even when accounting for tendon viscoelasticity. Non-optimized distributions resulted in concentrated force, typically in the outermost sutures. Results underscore the importance of accounting for viscoelastic effects in the design of tendon to bone repairs.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2021

An ex vivo culture model of kidney podocyte injury reveals mechanosensitive, synaptopodin-templating, sarcomere-like structures.

Chronic kidney diseases are widespread and incurable. The biophysical mechanisms underlying them are unclear, in part because material systems for reconstituting the microenvironment of the relevant kidney cells are limited. A critical question is how kidney podocytes (glomerular epithelial cells) regenerate the foot processes of the filtration apparatus following injury. Recently identified sarcomere-like structures (SLSs) with periodically spaced myosin IIA (a contractile protein) and synaptopodin (an actin-associated protein) appear in injured podocytes in vivo. We hypothesized that SLSs template synaptopodin in the initial stages of recovery, and tested this hypothesis by developing an ex vivo culture system that models both kidney physiology and pathophysiology. SLSs were observed in vitro for the first time as podocytes migrated out of harvested kidney glomeruli onto micropatterns of physiologically relevant proteins. SLSs emerged over two days, and cells formed foot process-like extensions from these periodically spaced proteins. SLS distributions and morphology were sensitive to actomyosin inhibitors, substrate stiffness, and extracellular matrix proteins associated with pathology. These results indicate a role for mechanobiological factors in podocyte recovery from injury, and suggest SLSs as a target for therapeutic intervention.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2021

Toughening mechanisms for the attachment of architectured materials: The mechanics of the tendon enthesis

Architectured materials offer tailored mechanical properties but are limited in engineering applications due to challenges in maintaining toughness across their attachments. The enthesis connects tendon and bone, two vastly different architectured materials, and exhibits toughness across a wide range of loadings. Understanding the mechanisms by which this is achieved could inform the development of engineered attachments. Integrating experiments, simulations, and novel imaging that enabled simultaneous observation of mineralized and unmineralized tissues, we identified putative mechanisms of enthesis toughening in a mouse model and then manipulated these mechanisms via in vivo control of mineralization and architecture. Imaging uncovered a fibrous architecture within the enthesis that controls trade-offs between strength and toughness. In vivo models of pathology revealed architectural adaptations that optimize these trade-offs through cross-scale mechanisms including nanoscale protein denaturation, milliscale load-sharing, and macroscale energy absorption. Results suggest strategies for optimizing architecture for tough bimaterial attachments in medicine and engineering. TeaserThe architecture of the tendon-to-bone attachment is designed for toughness.

bioengineering↗