Matrix mechanics governs mechano-metabolic adaptation across cancer grades in bladder spheroids
Extracellular matrix (ECM) mechanics critically influence cancer progression, yet the interplay between ECM viscoelasticity, architecture, and tumor cell adaptation remains incompletely understood. Here, we engineered collagen-hyaluronan hydrogels with tunable stiffness to mimic soft and stiff tumor microenvironments and studied bladder cancer spheroids representing benign, low-invasive, and highly invasive stages. Using hydraulic force spectroscopy, rheometry, and molecular analyses, we found that matrix stiffness differentially modulates spheroid morphology, migration, and expression of adhesion and metabolic markers. Active ECM remodeling via metalloproteinase MMP-2 facilitated migration in compliant but not rigid matrices, while mechano-metabolic coupling varied with cancer progression stage. These findings reveal how bladder cancer cells adapt to mechanical cues through coordinated biomechanical and metabolic responses, underscoring the importance of integrating cellular and matrix mechanics in modeling tumor invasion and developing targeted therapies.