Source-to-Tap Investigation of the Occurrence of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria in a Full-Scale Chloraminated Drinking Water System
Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) in drinking water are a significant public health concern. However, an incomplete understanding of the factors that influence the occurrence of NTM in drinking water limits our ability to characterize risk and prevent infection. This study sought to evaluate the influence of season and water treatment, distribution, and stagnation on NTM in drinking water. Samples were collected source-to-tap in a full-scale, chloraminated drinking water system approximately monthly from December 2019 to November 2020. NTM were characterized using culture-dependent (plate culture with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry [MALDI-TOF MS] isolate analysis) and culture-independent methods (quantitative PCR and genome resolved metagenomics). Sampling locations included source waters, three locations within the treatment plant, and five buildings receiving water from the distribution system. Building plumbing samples consisted of first draw, five-minute flush, and full flush cold-water samples. As the study took place during the COVID-19 pandemic, the influence of reduced water usage in three of the five buildings was also investigated. The highest concentrations of NTM source-to-tap were found in the summer first draw building water samples (107 gene copies/L), which also had the lowest chloramine concentrations. Flushing was found to be effective for reducing NTM and restoring disinfectant residuals, though flush times necessary to improve water quality varied by building. Clinically-relevant NTM species, including Mycobacterium avium, were recovered via plate culture, with increased occurrence observed in buildings with higher water age. Four of five NTM metagenome-assembled genomes were identified to the species level and matched identified isolates. ImportanceNTM infections are increasing in prevalence, difficult to treat, and associated with high mortality rates. Our lack of understanding of the factors that influence NTM occurrence in drinking water limits our ability to prevent infections, accurately characterize risk, and focus remediation efforts. In this study, we comprehensively evaluated NTM in a full-scale drinking water system, showing that various steps in treatment and distribution influence NTM presence. Stagnant building water contained the highest NTM concentrations source-to-tap and was associated with low disinfectant residuals. We illustrated the differences in NTM detection and characterization obtained from culture-based and culture-independent methods, highlighting the complementarity between these approaches. We demonstrated that focusing NTM mitigation efforts in building plumbing systems, which have the highest NTM concentrations source-to-tap, has potential for immediate positive effects. We also identified steps during treatment that increase NTM levels, which provides beneficial information for utilities seeking to reduce NTM in finished water.