Domains of transmission and association of community, school, and household sanitation with soil-transmitted helminth infections among children in coastal Kenya
IntroductionFew studies have simultaneously examined the role of sanitation conditions at the home, school, and community on soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infection. We examined the contribution of each domain that children inhabit (home, village, and school) and estimated the association of sanitation in each domain with STH infection.\n\nMethodsUsing data from 4,104 children from Kwale County, Kenya, who reported attending school, we used logistic regression models with cross-classified random effects to calculate measures of general contextual effects and estimate associations of village, school, and household sanitation with STH infection.\n\nFindingsWe found reported use of a sanitation facility by households was associated with reduced prevalence of hookworm infection but not with reduced prevalence of T. trichiura infection. School sanitation coverage > 3 toilets per 100 pupils was associated with lower prevalence of hookworm infection. School sanitation was not associated with T. trichiura infection. Village sanitation coverage > 81% was associated with reduced prevalence of T. trichiura infection, but no protective association was detected for hookworm infection. General contextual effects represented by residual heterogeneity between village and school domains had comparable impact upon likelihood of hookworm and T. trichiura infection as sanitation coverage in either of these domains.\n\nConclusionFindings support the importance of providing good sanitation facilities to support mass drug administration in reducing the burden of STH infection in children.\n\nAuthor SummaryInfection by whipworm and hookworm results from either ingestion of eggs or larvae or through skin exposure to larvae. These eggs and larvae develop in suitable soils contaminated with openly-deposited human faeces. Safe disposal of faeces should reduce transmission of these soil-transmitted helminths (STH), yet evidence of the impact of sanitation on STH transmission remains limited. We used data collected during a large, community-wide survey to measure prevalence of STH infections in coastal Kenya in 2015 to examine the relationship between sanitation conditions at home, school, and village and the presence of STH infection among 4,104 children who reported attending schools. We found that sanitation access at home and school sanitation coverage, but not the overall level of village sanitation coverage, was protective against hookworm infection. In contrast, only high village sanitation coverage, but not home or school sanitation, was protective against whipworm infection. Current STH control strategies emphasise periodic deworming through mass drug administration (MDA) of at-risk populations, including school-age children. Our findings highlight the need for continued efforts, alongside MDA, to extend access to good sanitation facilities at homes, schools, and across communities.