Biology subjects

Barnett-Cowan, M.

Publications and source records attributed to Barnett-Cowan, M..

17 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Perceptual Gravity Weighting Is Associated with Cybersickness Susceptibility During Virtual Reality

Cybersickness in virtual reality (VR) arises from conflicts between sensory signals, yet susceptibility varies considerably across individuals. Previous work in this cohort demonstrated that vestibulomotor responses during postural control are associated with cybersickness susceptibility. Here, we examined whether perceptual weighting of gravity, visual, and body cues used to estimate upright orientation is similarly associated with cybersickness and related to previously reported vestibulomotor measures. Thirty-eight healthy young adults (21 females, 17 males) completed a standing VR rollercoaster task while receiving continuous stochastic electrical vestibular stimulation (0-25 Hz, {+/-}4.5 mA). In the current analysis, perceptual cue weights were quantified before and after VR using the Oriented Character Recognition Task. Cybersickness was assessed using the Fast Motion Sickness Scale (FMS), and participants were classified as non-sick (FMS < 5), medium-sick (FMS [≥] 5), or high-sick (terminated the VR exposure early due to intolerance). Before VR, non-sick participants exhibited greater gravity weighting (36% vs. 25%) than high-sick participants, whereas high-sick participants showed a non-significant trend toward greater visual weighting (30% vs. 18%). Perceptual cue weights changed minimally following VR, and the magnitude of perceptual reweighting was not associated with sickness severity. Vestibulomotor measures were not correlated with perceptual gravity weighting, and postural sway during VR was not associated with visual weighting. These findings suggest that greater baseline perceptual gravity weighting, rather than short-term perceptual reweighting, is associated with reduced cybersickness susceptibility. The dissociation between perceptual and vestibulomotor measures suggests that orientation perception and postural control reflect partially distinct multisensory integration processes. New and NoteworthyThis study demonstrates that baseline perceptual gravity weighting is associated with susceptibility to cybersickness during virtual reality exposure with concurrent electrical vestibular stimulation. Greater reliance on gravity cues was associated with reduced susceptibility, whereas visual weighting showed a similar but non-significant trend and perceptual reweighting changed minimally following exposure. Perceptual measures were dissociable from vestibulomotor responses, suggesting that orientation perception and postural control reflect partially distinct multisensory integration processes.

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bioRxiv2026

Vestibulomotor Weighting Associated with Cybersickness in Virtual Reality

Cybersickness is a major barrier to the widespread adoption of virtual reality (VR), yet its underlying neurophysiological mechanisms remain poorly understood. This study investigated the relationship between vestibulomotor weighting and cybersickness. Vestibulomotor weighting was quantified using electrical vestibular stimulation (EVS), with coherence and gain between the EVS input and medial-lateral center-of-pressure (ML-CoP) responses indexing the contribution of vestibular input to postural control. Thirty-eight healthy young adults (females n=21, males n=17) completed a standing VR rollercoaster task while receiving continuous stochastic EVS (0-25 Hz; {+/-}4.5 mA), with ML-CoP responses recorded using a force plate. Cybersickness was assessed using the Fast Motion Sickness Scale (FMS) and Simulator Sickness Questionnaire, and participants were classified as non-sick (FMS < 5), medium-sick (FMS [≥] 5), or high-sick (terminated the VR exposure early due to intolerance). Baseline EVS-ML-CoP coherence across 2.5-8 Hz was significantly greater in high-sick than in non-sick participants, indicating elevated vestibulomotor weighting in individuals who developed symptoms. During VR exposure, coherence declined over time in symptomatic groups (mean slope = -0.0027 for medium-sick), whereas non-sick participants maintained consistently low coherence (mean slope = -0.0005). Despite this reduction in vestibular coupling, postural sway increased in the high-sick group relative to the medium-and non-sick groups (+29% vs. -7% and -30% change in ML-CoP RMS, respectively), while vestibular-evoked response amplitude decreased (gain reduced by 64% across 2.5-3.5 Hz). These findings indicate that greater baseline vestibulomotor weighting was associated with increased susceptibility to cybersickness, whereas reductions in vestibular contributions during VR with EVS reflected adaptive reweighting that was insufficient to prevent instability and symptom progression. Together, the results highlight baseline sensory reliance as a key determinant of cybersickness vulnerability and suggest that reweighting during exposure plays a secondary, mitigating role. New and NoteworthyWe provide the first evidence that baseline vestibulomotor weighting predicts susceptibility to cybersickness in virtual reality and is dynamically reduced during exposure. Using electrical vestibular stimulation, we show that symptomatic individuals begin with greater reliance on vestibular input for postural control and progressively downweight these signals in response to sensory conflict.

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bioRxiv2025

Metacognitive Reactivity and Temporal Perception: The Influence of Confidence Ratings on the Temporal Binding Window

The influence of confidence in assessing the perceived timing of sensory events on perceptual decision-making remains poorly understood. Metacognition--the ability to reflect on ones thought processes -- is often assessed through confidence ratings in perceptual tasks. However, accessing metacognitive information can influence task performance, a phenomenon known as the reactivity effect. This study examines metacognitive reactivity by examining the impact of confidence ratings on the temporal binding window (TBW) in two multisensory time perception tasks that use identical stimuli but require different judgments: Temporal Order Judgment (TOJ) and Simultaneity Judgment (SJ). Thirty-five participants (aged 18-39) completed TOJ and SJ tasks with and without confidence ratings via Prolific, an online participant recruitment platform. Psychometric functions were fitted to response and confidence data to determine TBW and the point of subjective simultaneity (PSS). Both tasks exhibited reactivity effects, with the effect being stronger in the SJ task. TBW significantly differed between TOJ and SJ tasks, regardless of confidence ratings. Additionally, TBWs from TOJ and SJ tasks were strongly correlated, as were the width parameters of confidence curves, suggesting shared underlying mechanisms in both perceptual and metacognitive processes. These findings highlight the utility of confidence ratings in evaluating TOJ and SJ performance, revealing both task differences and commonalities. We also discuss the potential for training interventions to enhance temporal perception, particularly in older adults. Finally, we reflect on the advantages and challenges of online data collection via Prolific, including its diverse participant pool and timing precision limitations.

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bioRxiv2024

Dynamics of sensorimotor reweighting: How light touch alters vestibular-evoked balance responses.

Integrated multisensory feedback plays a crucial role in balance control. Minimal fingertip contact with a surface (light-touch), reduces center of pressure (CoP) by adding sensory information about postural orientation and balance state. Electrical vestibular stimulation (EVS) can increase sway by adding erroneous vestibular cues. This juxtaposition of conflicting sensory cues can be exploited to explore the dynamics of sensorimotor reweighting. We used continuous stochastic EVS (0-25Hz; {+/-}4mA; 200-300s) to evoke balance responses in CoP (Exp-1, Exp-2) and segment accelerations (Exp-2). Systems analyses (coherence, gain) quantified coupling and size of balance responses to EVS. We had participants either touch (TOUCH; <2N) or not touch (NO-TOUCH) a load cell during EVS (Exp-1, Exp-2), or we intermittently removed the touch surface (Exp-2) to measure the effects of light touch on vestibular-evoked balance responses. We hypothesized that coherence and gain between EVS and CoP would decrease, consistent with the CNS down-weighting vestibular cues that conflict with light touch. Light touch reduced CoP displacement, but increased variation in the CoP signal explained by EVS input. Significant coherence between EVS and CoP was observed up to [~]30Hz in both conditions but was significantly greater in the TOUCH condition from 12-28.5-Hz. Conversely, EVS-CoP gain was 63% lower in TOUCH, compared to NO-TOUCH. Our findings show that light touch can re-weight vestibular-evoked responses by reducing their size but also increasing high frequency vestibular contributions for sway. This suggests that the CNS can use novel sensory inputs to alter balance behavior but cannot completely ignore a salient balance cue. New and NoteworthyThis study reveals that minimal fingertip contact (light touch) during balance tasks not only diminishes the impact of electrical vestibular stimulation (EVS) on sway, but also enhances the central nervous systems ability to integrate high-frequency vestibular cues. Specifically, light touch decreases the magnitude of EVS-induced sway while increasing coherence with EVS at higher frequencies, illustrating the central nervous systems capacity to adaptively reweight sensory inputs for improved balance control without fully disregarding dominant cues.

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bioRxiv2023

Investigating the effect of visual threat in virtual reality on perceiving postural instability onset

BackgroundSensory information processing plays a crucial role in monitoring the timing of external and internal events, including the control of balance. While previous research has investigated the role of vision in the perceived timing of postural instability onset with eyes closed and open, it is important to further explore the influence of visual context. Virtual reality offers a unique opportunity to manipulate visual information and assess its impact on balance control and the perceived timing of sensory events. Research QuestionDoes visual information, particularly visual threat presented in virtual reality, alter the perceived timing of postural instability onset? MethodsTwo temporal order judgment tasks were conducted using virtual reality to manipulate visual information. Participants were placed on a virtual skyscraper to induce visual threat. The experiments investigated the impact of visual information on the perceived onset of postural instability while manipulating the presence/absence of visual threat. ResultsWith vision available but without visual threat, the onset of a postural perturbation needed to occur 10.71-12.33 ms before a reference sound stimulus to be perceived as simultaneous. With visual threat, the onset needed to occur 4.45 ms before auditory cue onset to be perceived as simultaneous. While these delays were not significantly different from true simultaneity of perturbation and sound onset, participants were significantly more precise in their judgments when threatening visual information was present. SignificanceOur results show that visual context, particularly visual threat presented in virtual reality, may alter the perception of perturbation onset and the precision of judgments made. This has implications for understanding the role of vision in balance control and developing interventions to improve balance and prevent falls.

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bioRxiv2023

Perceived Timing of Postural Instability Onset With and Without Vision

BackgroundVision can significantly impact both the perception and behaviour related to postural control. This study examines the influence of vision on the perception of postural instability onset. Previous research employing Temporal Order Judgment (TOJ) tasks to investigate the perceived timing of postural perturbation onset has not incorporated visual cues. Research questionDoes the presence of visual feedback affect the point of subjective simultaneity (PSS) between postural perturbation onset and an auditory reference stimulus and does this additional sensory cue increase TOJ precision? MethodsUsing a lean-and-release paradigm, 10 participants were exposed to postural perturbations in both eyes closed (EC) and eyes open (EO) conditions using a TOJ task where they indicated whether they perceived postural instability onset or sound onset as occurring first for each trial. Separate paired t-tests between EC and EO PSS and just noticeable difference (JND) values were used. One-sample t-tests were also used on PSS values for both conditions, comparing them to 0ms (true simultaneity). ResultsThe EC condition demonstrated a perceived delay of postural instability onset by 25.78 ms, while the EO condition showed a perceived delay of the auditory stimulus by 12.33 ms. However, no significant differences were found between the conditions or in comparison to true simultaneity. Mean JND values for EC (39.88 ms) and EO (46.48 ms) were not significantly different, suggesting visual information does not affect response precision for this task under these conditions. SignificanceThese findings indicate that visual information does not significantly affect the perception of postural instability onset. This suggests that visual information may play a limited role in the early perceptual stages of postural instability.

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bioRxiv2023

Perceived timing of postural instability onset

BackgroundThis study examines the perceived timing of postural instability onset, a crucial aspect of balance. Previous research using Temporal Order Judgment (TOJ) tasks found that postural perturbations need to occur significantly earlier than an auditory reference stimulus for individuals to perceive them as simultaneous. However, there are methodological concerns with this prior work, specifically regarding an unbalanced stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) distribution. Research questionDoes the point of subjective simultaneity (PSS) between postural perturbation onset and an auditory reference stimulus differ for equal versus unequal SOA distributions? MethodsA repeated measures design was utilized, presenting two different SOA distributions to 10 participants using a TOJ task during both the equal (72 trials) and unequal (88 trials) SOA distributions. Paired t-tests were used to determine if there was a significant difference between the PSS of the equal and unequal SOA distributions. Additionally, one-sample t-tests were performed on the PSS values of both the equal and unequal SOA distributions in comparison to 0ms (defined as true simultaneity) to determine if perceptual responses were delayed. ResultsThe results indicate that the unequal SOA distribution resulted in a perceived delay of postural instability onset by 20.34ms, while the equal SOA distribution resulted in a perceived delay of the auditory stimulus of 3.52ms. However, neither condition was significantly different from each other nor from true simultaneity. SignificanceThese findings suggest that the perception of postural instability onset is not slow, as previously thought, and highlight the importance of controlling methodological parameters when investigating sensory cues. This knowledge highlights the importance of controlling methodological parameters when investigating the perception of sensory cues and will help inform falls prevention strategies.

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bioRxiv2022

Sensory Reweighting: A Common Mechanism for Subjective Visual Vertical and Cybersickness Susceptibility

The malaise symptoms of cybersickness are thought to be related to the sensory conflict present in the exposure to virtual reality (VR) content. When there is a sensory mismatch in the process of sensory perception, the perceptual estimate has been shown to change based on a reweighting mechanism between the relative contributions of the individual sensory signals involved. In this study, the reweighting of vestibular and body signals was assessed before and after exposure to different typical VR experiences and sickness severity was measured to investigate the relationship between susceptibility to cybersickness and sensory reweighting. Participants reported whether a visually presented line was rotated clockwise or counterclockwise from vertical while laying on their side in a subjective visual vertical (SVV) task. Task performance was recorded prior to VR exposure and after a low and high intensity VR game. The results show that the SVV was significantly shifted away from the body representation of upright and towards the vestibular signal after exposure to the high intensity VR game. Cybersickness measured using the fast motion sickness (FMS) scale found that sickness severity ratings were higher in the high intensity compared to the low intensity experience. The change in SVV from baseline after each VR exposure modelled using a simple 3-parameter gaussian regression fit was found to explain 49.5% of the variance in the FMS ratings. These results highlight the aftereffects of VR for sensory perception and suggests a potential relationship between the susceptibility to cybersickness and sensory reweighting.

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bioRxiv2022

Off-Vertical Body Orientation Delays the Perceived Onset of Visual Motion

SummaryThe integration of vestibular, visual and body cues is a fundamental process in the perception of self-motion and is commonly experienced in an upright posture. However, when the body is tilted in an off-vertical orientation these signals are no longer aligned relative to the influence of gravity. In this study, sensory conflict with the vestibular signal was introduced by manipulating the orientation of the body, generating a mismatch between body and vestibular cues due to gravity in the perception of upright and creating an ambiguous vestibular signal of either head tilt or translation. In a series of temporal-order judgment tasks, participants reported the perceived onset of a visual scene simulating rotation around the yaw axis presented in virtual reality with a paired auditory tone while in an upright, supine and side recumbent body positions. The results revealed that the perceived onset of visual motion was further delayed from zero (i.e., true simultaneity between visual onset and a reference auditory tone) by approximately an additional 30ms when viewed in a supine or side recumbent orientation compared to an upright posture. There were also no significant differences in the timing estimates of the visual motion between all the non-upright orientations. This indicates that the perceived timing of visual motion is negatively impacted by the presence of conflict in the vestibular and body signals due to the direction of gravity and body orientation, even when the mismatch is not in the direct plane of the axis of rotation.

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bioRxiv2021

Evaluating the Effect of Semantic Congruency and Valence on Multisensory Integration

Previous studies demonstrate that semantics, the higher level meaning of multi-modal stimuli, can impact multisensory integration. Valence, an affective response to images, has not yet been tested in non-priming response time (RT) or temporal order judgement (TOJ) tasks. This study aims to investigate both semantic congruency and valence of non-speech audiovisual stimuli on multisensory integration via RT and TOJ tasks (assessing processing speed (RT), point of subjective simultaneity (PSS), and time-window when multisensory stimuli are likely to be perceived as simultaneous (Temporal Binding Window; TBW)). Forty participants (mean age: 26.25; females=17) were recruited from Prolific Academic resulting in 37 complete datasets. Both congruence and valence have a significant main effect on RT (congruent and high valence decrease RT) as well as an interaction effect (congruent/high valence condition being significantly faster than all others). For TOJ, images high in valence require visual stimuli to be presented significantly earlier than auditory stimuli in order for the audio and visual stimuli to be perceived as simultaneous. Further, a significant interaction effect of congruence and valence on the PSS revealed that the congruent/high valence condition was significantly earlier than all other conditions. A subsequent analysis shows there is a positive correlation between the TBW width (b-values) and RT (as the TBW widens, the RT increases) for the categories that differed most from 0 in their PSS (Congruent/High and Incongruent/Low). This study provides new evidence that supports previous research on semantic congruency and presents a novel incorporation of valence into behavioural responses.

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bioRxiv2020

Limits of subjective and objective vection for ultra-high frame rate visual displays

Large-field optic flow generates the illusory percept of self-motion, termed vection. Smoother visual motion displays generate a more compelling subjective sense of vection and objective postural responses, as well as a greater sense of immersiveness for the user observing the visual display. Research suggests that the function linking frame rate and vection asymptotes at 60 frames per second (FPS), but previous studies have used only moderate frame rates that do not approach the limits of human perception. Here, we measure vection using subjective and objective (mean frequency and path length of postural centre-of-pressure (COP) excursions) responses following the presentation of high-contrast optic flow stimuli at slow and fast speeds and low and ultra-high frame rates. We achieve this using a novel rendering method implemented with a projector capable of sub-millisecond temporal resolution in order to simulate refresh rates ranging from very low (15 FPS) to ultra-high frame rates (480 FPS). The results suggest that subjective vection was experienced most strongly at 60 FPS. Below and above 60 FPS, subjective vection is generally weaker, shorter, and starts later, although this pattern varied slightly according to the speed of stimuli. For objective measures, while the frequency of postural sway was unaffected by frame rate, COP path length was greatest for 480 FPS stimuli. Together, our results support diminishing returns for vection above 60 FPS and provide insight into the use of high frame rate for enhancing the user experience in visual displays.

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bioRxiv2019

Reduction of cybersickness during and immediately following noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation

The mechanism underlying cybersickness during virtual reality (VR) exposure is still poorly understood, although research has highlighted a causal role for visual-vestibular sensory conflict. Recently established methods for reducing cybersickness include galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) to mimic absent vestibular cues in VR, or vibration of the vestibular organs to add noise to the sensory modality. Here, we examined if applying noise to the vestibular system using noisy-current GVS also affects sickness severity in VR. Participants were exposed to one of two VR games that were classified as either moderate or intense with respect to their nauseogenic effects. The VR content lasted for 50 minutes and was broken down into 3 blocks: 30 minutes of gameplay during exposure to either noisy GVS ({+/-}1750 A) or sham stimulation (0 A), and 10 minutes of gameplay before and after this block. We characterized the effects of noisy GVS in terms of post-minus-pre-exposure cybersickness scores. For the intense VR content, we found a main effect of noisy vestibular stimulation. Participants reported lower cybersickness scores during and directly after exposure to GVS. However, this difference was quickly extinguished ([~]3-6 min) after further exposure to VR, indicating that sensory adaptation did not persist after stimulation was terminated. In contrast, there were no differences between the sham and GVS group for the moderate VR content. The results show the potential for reducing cybersickness with simple non-invasive sensory stimulation. We discuss the prospect that noise-induced sensory re-weighting is responsible for the observed effects, and address other possible mechanisms.

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bioRxiv2019

Narrative and gaming experience interact to affect presence and cybersickness in virtual reality

Research has established a link between presence and cybersickness in virtual environments, but there is significant disagreement regarding the directionality of the relationship (positive or negative) between the two factors, and if the relationship is modulated by other top-down influences. Several studies have revealed a negative association between the factors, highlighting the prospect that manipulating one factor might affect the other. Here we examined if a top-down factor (narrative context) enhances presence, and whether this effect is associated with a decrease in cybersickness. We analyzed the association between responses to questionnaire measures of cybersickness and presence, as well as the degree to which their relationship was affected by the administration of an enriched or minimal verbal narrative context. The results of the first experiment, conducted in a controlled laboratory environment, revealed that enriched narrative was associated with increased presence, but that the reductive effect of narrative on cybersickness depended on video gaming experience. We also observed the expected negative association between presence and cybersickness, but only in the enriched narrative group. In a second experiment, conducted with a diverse sample at a public museum, we confirmed our previous finding that presence and cybersickness are negatively correlated, specifically when participants experienced an enriched narrative. We also confirmed the interaction between narrative and gaming experience with respect to cybersickness. These results highlight the complexity of the presence-cybersickness relationship, and confirm that both factors can be modulated in a beneficial manner for virtual reality users by means of top-down interventions.

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bioRxiv2019

Visual self-motion feedback affects the sense of self in virtual reality

We assessed how self-motion affects the visual representation of the self. We constructed a novel virtual reality experiment that systematically varied an avatars motion and also biological sex. Participants were presented with pairs of avatars that visually represented the participant (\"self avatar\"), or another person (\"opposite avatar\"). Avatar motion either corresponded with the participants motion, or was decoupled from the participants motion. The results show that participants identified with i) \"self avatars\" over \"opposite avatars\", ii) avatars moving congruently with self-motion over incongruent motion, and importantly iii) identification with the \"opposite avatar\" over the \"self avatar\" when the opposite avatars motion was congruent with self-motion. Our results suggest that both self-motion and biological sex are relevant to the body schema and body image and that congruent bottom-up visual feedback of self-motion is particularly important for the sense of self and capable of overriding top-down self-identification factors such as biological sex.

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bioRxiv2019

Temporal Metrics of Multisensory Processing Change in the Elderly

Older adults exhibit greater multisensory response time (RT) facilitation by violating the race model more than younger adults; this is commonly interpreted as an enhancement in perception. Older adults typically exhibit wider temporal binding windows (TBWs) and points of subjective simultaneity (PSS) that are farther from true simultaneity as compared to younger adults when simultaneity judgment (SJ) and temporal order judgment (TOJ) tasks are utilized; this is commonly interpreted as an impairment in perception. Here we explore the relation between the three tasks in younger and older adults in order to better understand the underlying mechanisms that subserve audiovisual multisensory temporal processing. Our results confirm previous reports showing that audiovisual RT, TBWs and PSSs change with age, and we show for the first time a significant positive relation between the magnitude of race model violation in younger adults as a function of the PSS obtained from the audiovisual TOJ task with (r: 0.49, p: 0.007), that is absent among the elderly (r: 0.13, p: 0.58). Furthermore, we find no evidence for the relation between race model violation as a function of the PSS obtained from the audiovisual SJ task in both younger (r: -0.01, p: 0.94) and older adults (r: 0.1, p: 0.66). Our results confirm previous reports that i) audiovisual temporal processing changes with age; ii) there is evidence for distinct neural networks involved in simultaneity and temporal order perception; and iii) common processing between race model violation and temporal order judgment is impaired in the elderly.

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bioRxiv2018

Estimating the sensorimotor components of cybersickness

The user base of the virtual reality (VR) medium is growing, and many of these users will experience cybersickness. Accounting for the vast inter-individual variability in cybersickness forms a pivotal step in solving the issue. Most studies of cybersickness focus on a single factor (e.g., balance, sex, vection), while other contributors are overlooked. Here, we characterize the complex relationship between cybersickness and several indices of sensorimotor processing. In a single session, we conducted a battery of tests of balance control, vection responses, and vestibular sensitivity to self-motion. A principal components regression model, primarily composed of balance control measures during vection, significantly predicted 37% of the variability in cybersickness measures. We observed strong, inverse associations between measures of sway and cybersickness. The results reiterate that the relationship between balance control and cybersickness is anything but straightforward. We discuss other factors that may account for the remaining variance in cybersickness.

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bioRxiv2018

Perceived timing of active head movement at different speeds

The central nervous system must determine which sensory events occur at the same time. Actively moving the head corresponds with large changes in the relationship between the observer and the environment, sensorimotor processing, and spatiotemporal perception. Numerous studies have shown that head movement onset must precede the onset of other sensory events in order to be perceived as simultaneous, indicating that head movement perception is slow. Active head movement perception has been shown to be slower than passive head movement perception and dependent on head movement velocity, where participants who move their head faster than other participants require the head to move even earlier than comparison stimuli to be perceived as simultaneous. These results suggest that head movement perception is slower (i.e., suppressed) when the head moves faster. The present study used a within-subjects design to measure the point of subjective simultaneity (PSS) between active head movement speeds and a comparison sound stimulus. Our results clearly show that i) head movement perception is faster when the head moves faster within-subjects, ii) active head movement onset must still precede the onset of other sensory events (Average PSS: -123 to -52 ms) in order to be perceived as occurring simultaneously even at the fastest speeds (Average peak velocity: 76{degrees}/s to 257{degrees}/s). We conclude that head movement perception is slow, but that this delay is minimized with increased speed. While we do not provide evidence against sensory suppression, which requires active versus passive head movement comparison, our results do rule out velocity-based suppression.

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