Forest structure and degradation drive canopy gap sizes across the Brazilian Amazon
Canopy gaps are openings in the forest canopy resulting from branch fall and tree mortality events. Light reaches the lower layers of the canopy through these gaps, enabling understory trees to grow and maintaining the high heterogeneity and biodiversity of tropical forests. The size-frequency distribution of canopy gaps follows a power-law distribution, and the slope of this power-law () is a key indicator of forest structure and dynamics. We detected canopy gaps using a unique LiDAR data set consisting of 650 transects randomly distributed across the Brazilian Amazon Forest providing an unprecedented perspective on forest structural variation over 2500 km2 of forest. We then investigated how varied with forest structure, elevation, soil fertility, water deficit, wind gust speed and lightning intensity. We found that human modified forests had more large gaps than intact forests. Within the intact forests we observed a large-scale Northwest to Southeast pattern in (more large gaps in the Southeast), which aligns with recent work on tree mortality rates. The two most important variables in predicting were median canopy height and maximum modeled height, which had opposite effects on the number of large gaps. Forests with higher median canopy height contain fewer large gaps but the presence of very tall trees was associated with more large gaps. Environmental variables were of secondary importance in our model, with larger gaps occurring in drier forests with high soil fertility, wind speed, and lightning intensity. The distribution of large gaps in the forest canopy varies substantially over the Brazilian Amazon as a result of canopy structure and mortality rates. We mapped this variation and found more large gaps in human modified forests, forests on fertile soils and those exposed to higher wind, lightning and drought stress. Increasing extreme weather events due to climate change may therefore increase the number of large gaps in currently intact forests, causing them to resemble human modified forests.