Biology subjects

Ando, T.

Publications and source records attributed to Ando, T..

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

bioRxiv2026

Initiating mammalian reproduction from a single male genome

Sex in mammals is unidirectionally determined by the configuration of sex chromosomes. In contrast, several species, including fishes, can switch sexes in response to environmental cues, illustrating the reproductive advantages of sexual plasticity. Thus, technologies that can bypass the unidirectional nature of mammalian sex determination could open new avenues in reproductive biology. Here, by establishing a method that enables robust Y-chromosome elimination in embryos, we provide a strategy to regulate sex in mice. We show that this approach efficiently induces male-to-female sex reversal by releasing the Y chromosome as micronuclei during early development. When integrated with optimized somatic cell nuclear transfer, it enabled the parallel production of both male and sex-reversed female mice from a single male genome source. Offspring were successfully obtained from crosses between these male and sex-reversed female clones, demonstrating that this "dual-sex cloning" strategy can initiate sexual reproduction solely from a male somatic genome. These findings highlight dual-sex cloning as a valuable platform for securing mammalian reproduction and biodiversity from limited genetic resources.

developmental biology↗

bioRxiv2026

Compact serum miRNA qPCR model for pancreatic cancer discrimination with independent and clinical validation

BackgroundFor pancreatic cancer, practical blood-based tests for early detection and postoperative surveillance remain elusive. We sought to develop a qPCR-measurable serum microRNA (miRNA) panel that robustly discriminates pancreatic cancer from non-cancer controls and other malignancies. MethodsWe profiled 255 serum miRNAs in batch 1 (n=72) and selected 27 candidates. Candidates were refined in batch 2 (n=552) and cross-batch evaluation was performed with batch 3 (n=391) to derive a miRNA model. Independent validation used batch 4 (n=616). Clinical relevance was assessed in an independent clinical cohort of resection patients with samples obtained preoperatively and at 1 and 12 months postoperatively. ResultsThe miRNA model trained on batches 2 and 3 achieved an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.91 and 0.83 for pancreatic cancer versus non-cancer controls and non-cancer plus other cancers, respectively, when independently validated in batch 4. Stage-wise AUCs in batch 4 were 0.91 (I), 0.94 (II), 0.86 (III) and 0.90 (IV). In the clinical batch, the score decreased postoperatively (preoperative vs month 1; p<0.01) and was higher in recurrence than non-recurrence (p<0.001). ConclusionsThe developed compact miRNA qPCR assay discriminated pancreatic cancer across independent assay batches and showed clinical relevance for postoperative surveillance. Clinical Trial RegistrationNot applicable.

cancer biology↗

bioRxiv2025

Enhancing the imaging rate of high-speed atomic force microscopy using a combination of multiple techniques

Protein molecules, while functioning, undergo dynamic conformational changes and interactions with their partners, which can be directly observed by high-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM). However, its imaging rate of approximately 10 frames per second (fps) has remained unchanged since its inception, despite the increasing demand for observing dynamic biomolecular processes that occur too fast to be captured at this time resolution. Here we report a combination of techniques that significantly enhances the imaging rate without disturbing the sample. HS-AFM imaging of the stator ring of F1-ATPase visualised two intermediate states, which could not be resolved with the previous HS-AFM system. The high-resolution molecular movies demonstrate how the catalytic subunits cooperate during the chemomechanical cycle.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2025

Energy conversion mechanism revealed by ATP-free and ATP-1 dependent walking of myosin V motor

The mechanical processes of ATPase protein motors are coupled to their ATPase reactions. The free energy released at a given step(s) of the ATPase cycle is converted into mechanical work. Therefore, it has long been thought that ATP is the energy source for mechanical work. Here, we show that the double-headed myosin V (M5) motor can perform ATP-free walking. In the presence of ADP, M5 bound to F-actin by both heads makes a forward step when the trailing head is detached by an external force. This forward step harnesses the strain energy in the leading (L) head, provided from the strong binding energy between the L-head and actin. Consequently, strain generation reduces the binding affinity, which manifests as sporadic, brief L-head detachment. Strain generation and brief L-head detachment also occur during ATP-dependent walking to similar extents as during ATP-free walking. These results suggest that the strong binding energy is also converted into mechanical work during ATP-dependent walking.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2025

Urinary exfoliated cells exhibit mesodermal lineage differentiation potential in the absence of dedicated culture conditions

IntroductionUrine contains various cells derived from the kidney, including renal tubular epithelial cells, glomerular epithelial cells, and mesenchymal stem cells. Urinary exfoliated mesenchymal stem cells can be differentiated into adipocytes, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, muscle cells, or neuronal cells, if grown in specialized culture conditions. In this study, however, we identified the development of multiple mesodermal cell lineages from urinary exfoliated cells despite using a single culture system not designed for these cell differentiations. MethodsUrinary exfoliated cells used for culturing were obtained from pediatric patients with kidney disease. All cultures were maintained using an identical, non-specifically supplemented, rich, DMEM/F12-based growth medium, refreshed regularly throughout the experiments. Cells of different mesodermal lineages--adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes--were identified by staining with Oil Red O, Alizarin Red, and Alcian Blue solutions. Moreover, the expression of mRNA markers specific for adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes, as well as for stem cells and--more specifically--mesenchymal stem cells, was analyzed by RT-PCR. ResultsAlthough the abundances varied, in all 11 cultures of urinary exfoliated cells from six patients, dye staining revealed multiple cell clusters of mesodermal lineages. All cultures contained clusters of the adipocyte and chondrocyte lineages, and seven also contained clusters of the osteoblast lineage. Morphology differences were found even between clusters stained with the same dye. RT-PCR confirmed the presence of the three lineages, while also revealing expression of genes specific to pluripotent stem cells (Nanog, Oct3/4, SOX2, and LIF) and genes more specific for mesenchymal stem cells (CD73, CD90, and CD105). ConclusionsAmong urinary exfoliated cells cultured using our method, clusters of cells of mesodermal lineages were observed without needing to selectively adjust the culture medium. The cells seemed to differentiate and proliferate from mesenchymal stem cells in the urine. We envision that these initial findings may eventually contribute to a deeper understanding of urinary stem cell differentiation and to optimizing lineage-specific differentiation for research and therapeutic applications.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2025

Characterization of a Novel Transmembrane Activating STING Agonist using Genetically Humanized Mice

STING is a pattern recognition receptor that activates type I interferon and proinflammatory responses in addition to unrelated molecular processes following exposure of DNA to the cytosol. Its pharmacologic stimulation enhances vaccine potency and generates effective antitumor responses but clinical trials evaluating STING agonists have not led to approval for human use. STING activation can occur through ligand engagement of either cytosolic or transmembrane protein domains, processes to which distinct cellular phenotypes are attributed. However, the only transmembrane STING agonist identified is human selective and in vivo testing in conventional models is not feasible. Here we describe synthesis of novel STING agonists efficacious against allelic variants of the protein. We also describe genetically humanized STING mice and demonstrate their suitability as a model to evaluate in vivo responses following exogenous administration of human-selective agonists. Experiments demonstrate that the lead molecule (termed INI3069) functions through binding to the STING transmembrane region and its comparison with conventional agonists reveals significant differences in molecular and immune effects. INI3069 can also enhance antibody responses to co-administered antigens and antitumor responses. This work both represents the first in vivo examination of the effects of transmembrane STING agonism and demonstrates efficacy of a potential novel vaccine adjuvant and oncological therapeutic.

immunology↗

bioRxiv2025

A highly efficient knock-in strategy using fast-annealed 3'-extended dsDNA templates for emerging model insects

CRISPR-Cas genome editing toolkits have expanded the scope of genetic studies in various emerging model organisms. However, their applications are limited mainly to knockout experiments due to technical difficulties in establishing knock-in strains, which enable in vivo molecular tagging-based experiments. Here, we investigated knock-in strategies in the harlequin ladybug Harmonia axyridis, a model insect for evolutionary developmental biology, which shows more than 200 color pattern variations within a species. We tested several knock-in strategies using synthetic DNA templates. We found that ssDNA templates generated founder knock-in strains efficiently (2.5-11%), whereas the 5 regions of ssDNA templates were frequently deleted when the insert length exceeded [~]40 bases. To overcome this limitation, we designed several 3 extended DNA templates. Fast-annealed 3-extended double-stranded DNA templates, which were designed for tagging endogenous proteins with epitope tags, showed high founder generation efficiency (9.9-20.9%) and accuracy (30.8-85.7%). This strategy is also applicable to the two-spotted cricket Gryllus bimaculatus, suggesting that the fast-annealed 3-extended dsDNA template is a versatile DNA template for generating knock-in strains in emerging model insects for developmental genetic studies. Summary statementFast-annealed 3-extended dsDNA templates facilitate efficient CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knock-in in emerging model insects.

bioengineering↗

bioRxiv2025

Laboratory rearing of the broad-nosed weevil Scepticus tigrinus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) using artificial and plant-based diets

Scepticus tigrinus Roelofs (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and its related species are polyphagous weevil pests that damage various vegetables and crops. Despite their agricultural importance, scalable and straightforward rearing methods using artificial diets have not been established, limiting physiological and developmental studies necessary for effective pest control. The present study evaluated a commercially available artificial diet (F1675) for rearing S. tigrinus. We found that this artificial diet is suitable for the larval growth of S. tigrinus. However, the pupation rate was markedly low. To address this issue, we established a combined diet-rearing protocol in which larvae are fed with an artificial diet until the final instar and then exposed to raw plant pieces during the late final instar stage. This method significantly improved pupation success compared to the artificial diet alone (21.68%) and demonstrated higher pupation efficiency relative to labor input than the conventional raw plant-based rearing. Notably, final instar larvae pupated without feeding on the plant material, suggesting that non-nutritive cues--possibly chemical signals from the plants--may trigger pupation. The proposed combined diet protocol offers a practical approach for mass rearing and facilitates physiological and genetic studies of S. tigrinus and related weevil pests.

zoology↗

bioRxiv2025

Hippo-activated cells induce non-cell autonomous tumorigenesis in Drosophila

The Hippo pathway is known as a tumor-suppressor pathway, and most related studies have indicated that the inhibition of the Hippo pathway leads to tumorigenesis. However, recent studies have suggested that the activated Hippo pathway can potentially promote tumorigenesis in some contexts. Here, we show that the activated Hippo pathway induces non-cell-autonomous tumorigenesis characterized by tumor markers in the Drosophila wing epithelium. This suggests that the Hippo-activated cells behave similarly to "oncogenic niche cells." We found that the Hippo-activated cells distantly induced tumor-like cells exhibiting aberrant cell proliferation. Moreover, we identified the evolutionarily conserved amino acid transporters, Sat1/2, that redundantly work with the growth factors, Wingless and Spitz, for non-cell autonomous tumorigenesis. Our findings provide novel insights into the Hippo pathway and may be useful in developing cancer treatments targeting the Hippo pathway.

cell biology↗

bioRxiv2024

Submolecular-scale Hairpin DNA Folding Dynamics Studied by High-Speed AFM with Optical Tweezers

Optical tweezers have contributed to elucidate the folding mechanisms associated with biomolecules. By combining single-molecule or super-resolution techniques, imaging can also be performed while measuring or inducing force coupling with biochemical reactions; however, they cannot capture structural information beyond the fluorophore spatial resolution. To overcome this problem, here, we developed a technique that combines optical tweezers with high-speed atomic force microscopy (AFM). To solve the problem of incompatible instrumental configurations, we developed a unique optical tweezers measurement system that is specialized for high-speed AFM. Upon applying an external force to a synthesized DNA secondary structure, we successfully visualized the dissociation of the duplex structure. Furthermore, we succeeded in observing spontaneous reannealing of the duplex structure upon releasing the force, which demonstrates that the folding reaction can be reversibly controlled. We also reveal that along with duplex unfolding, a metastable secondary structure is generated and its topology changes transiently over time. The results indicate that this technique provides structural insights that cannot be obtained by conventional fluorescence techniques.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2024

Different molecular recognition by three domains of the full-length GRB2 to SOS1 proline-rich motifs and EGFR phosphorylated sites

The adaptor protein human GRB2 plays crucial roles in mediating signal transduction from cell membrane receptors to RAS and its downstream proteins by recruiting SOS1. Recent studies have revealed that GRB2 also serves as a scaffold for liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) with SOS1 and transmembrane receptors, which is thought to regulate the magnitude of cell signalling pathways. In this study, we employed solution NMR spectroscopy to investigate the interactions of the full-length GRB2 with proline-rich motifs (PRMs) derived from ten potential GRB2-binding sites in SOS1, as well as a peptide from a phosphorylation site of EGFR. Our findings indicate that the binding affinity of the two SH3 domains of GRB2 for PRMs differs by a factor of ten to twenty, with the N-terminal SH3 domain (NSH3) exhibiting a markedly higher affinity. The interactions of PRMs with the SH3 domains affected not only the regions surrounding the PRM binding sites on the SH3 domains but also the linker area connecting the three domains and parts of the SH2 domain. Analysis of the interaction between the phosphorylated EGFR binding site and the SH2 domain revealed chemical shift perturbations in regions distal from the known binding site of SH2. Moreover, we observed that the inter-domain interactions of the two SH3 domains with the SH2 domain of GRB2 are asymmetric. These findings suggest that the local binding of PRMs and phosphorylated EGFR to GRB2 impacts the overall structure of the GRB2 molecule, including domain orientation and dimerisation, which may contribute to LLPS formation.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2023

Save GPU RAM Usage in Convolutional Layers to Load Huge Images

Image recognition models have evolved tremendously. Despite the progress for general images, histopathological images are not easy targets. One of the reasons is that histopathological images can be 100000-200000px in height and width which are often too large for a deep neural network model to handle directly because the RAM of the GPU is limited. Mitigating the obstacle is expected to be a progress in the histopathological image analysis. In this study, we save the RAM consumption in a convolutional layer by allocating only the required data to GPU only when needed and by dividing the calculation into per channel. This RAM Saving Convolutional layer (RSConv) can load larger images than a normal convolutional layer. The code is available at https://github.com/tand826/RAMSavingConv2d.

pathology↗

bioRxiv2023

A kinome-wide synthetic lethal CRISPR/Cas9 screen reveals that mTOR inhibition prevents adaptive resistance to CDK4/CDK6 blockade in HNSCC

The comprehensive genomic analysis of the head and neck cancer (HNSCC) oncogenome revealed frequent loss of p16INK4A (CDKN2A) in most HPV negative HNSCC lesions, often concomitant with amplification of the cyclin D1 (CCND1) gene locus. However, cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 (CDK4/6) inhibitors as single agents have shown modest effect in the clinic, even when combined with cetuximab. The aberrant activation of PI3K/mTOR pathway is highly prevalent in HNSCC, and recent clinical trials targeting mTOR showed promising results in terms of objective responses and progression free survival. However, the clinical efficacy of mTOR inhibitors (mTORi) for advanced HNSCC patients may be limited due to intrinsic or acquired resistance. By a kinome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 screen, we identified cell cycle inhibition as a synthetic lethal target for mTORi. Combination of mTORi and palbociclib, a CDK4/6 specific inhibitor, showed strong synergism in HNSCC-derived cells in vitro and in vivo. Remarkably, we found that adaptive increase in cyclin E1 (CCNE1) expression upon palbociclib treatment underlies the rapid acquired resistance to this CDK4/6 inhibitor in HNSCC. Mechanistically, mTORi inhibits the formation of eIF4G-CCNE1 mRNA complexes, with the consequent reduction in mRNA translation and CCNE1 protein expression. Our findings suggest that concomitant mTOR blockade reverts the adaptive resistance to palbociclib, thereby providing a novel multimodal therapeutic option for HNSCC patients by co-targeting mTOR and CDK4/6. Our findings may have broad implications to halt the emergence of palbociclib resistance.

cancer biology↗

bioRxiv2022

Structural dynamics of E6AP E3 ligase HECT domain and involvement of flexible hinge loop in ubiquitin chain synthesis mechanism

Ubiquitin (Ub) ligases E3 are an important factor in selecting target proteins for ubiquitination and determining the type of polyubiquitin chains on the target proteins. In the HECT (homologous to E6AP C-terminus)-type E3 ligases, the HECT domain is composed of an N-lobe containing the E2-binding site and a C-lobe containing the catalytic Cys residue that forms a thioester bond with Ub. These two lobes are connected by a flexible hinge loop. The large conformational rearrangement of the HECT domain via the flexible hinge loop is essential for HECT-type E3-mediated Ub transfer from E2 to a target protein. However, detailed insights into the structural dynamics of this type of E3 ligases remain unclear. Here, we provide the first direct demonstration of structural dynamics of the E6AP HECT domain using high-speed atomic force microscopy. We also investigated structural dynamics of hinge loop flexibility restricted HECT domain, and we found that flexibility of the E6AP hinge loop has a great impact not only on its structural dynamics but also on the formation of free Ub chains mediated by E3-E3 interactions.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2022

Hidden Markov Modeling of Molecular Orientations and Structures from High-Speed Atomic Force Microscopy Time-Series Images

High-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM) is a powerful technique for capturing the time-resolved behavior of biomolecules. However, structural information in HS-AFM images is limited to the surface geometry of a sample molecule. Inferring latent three-dimensional structures from the surface geometry is thus important for getting more insights into conformational dynamics of a target biomolecule. Existing methods for estimating the structures are based on the rigid-body fitting of candidate structures to each frame of HS-AFM images. Here, we extend the existing frame-by-frame rigid-body fitting analysis to multiple frames to exploit orientational correlations of a sample molecule between adjacent frames in HS-AFM data due to the interaction with the stage. In the method, we treat HS-AFM data as time-series data, and they are analyzed with the hidden Markov modeling. Using simulated HS-AFM images of the taste receptor type 1 as a test case, the proposed method shows a more robust estimation of molecular orientations than the frame-by-frame analysis. The method is widely applicable in integrative modeling of conformational dynamics using real experimental HS-AFM data. Author summaryBiomolecules dynamically change their structures in cells and perform various functions that are important for life. It is difficult to observe such dynamic structural changes using conventional experimental techniques, such as X-ray crystallography, that mainly observe static atomic structures. Alternative approach is the atomic force microscopy (AFM), a technique to measure the surface geometry of a sample molecule by scanning with an acute tip. Recently, by increasing the imaging rate of the AFM, it has become possible to observe the dynamics of biomolecules at work. However, the information measured with AFM is limited to the surface geometry of a molecule, so it is important to extract three-dimensional structural information from those data. In this study, we develop a method to estimate structural information with higher accuracy.

biophysics↗

bioRxiv2021

Air plasma-activated medium exerts tumor-specific cytotoxicity via the oxidative stress-induced perinuclear mitochondrial clustering

Intractable cancers such as osteosarcoma (OS) and oral cancer (OC) are highly refractory, recurrent, and metastatic once developed, and their prognosis is still disappointing. Tumor-targeted therapy eliminating cancers effectively and safely is the current clinical choice. Since aggressive tumors have inherent or acquired resistance to multidisciplinary therapies targeting apoptosis, tumor-specific induction of another cell death modality is a promising avenue to meet the goal. Here, we report that a cold atmospheric air plasma-activated medium (APAM) can induce cell death in OS and OC via a unique mitochondrial clustering. This event was named monopolar perinuclear mitochondrial clustering (MPMC) because of the characteristic unipolar mitochondrial perinuclear aggregation. APAM had potent antitumor activity both in vitro and in vivo. APAM caused apoptosis, necrotic cell death, and autophagy. APAM contained hydrogen peroxide and increased mitochondrial ROS (mROS), while the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) prevented cell death. MPMC occurred following mitochondrial fragmentation coinciding with nuclear damages. MPMC was accompanied by the tubulin network remodeling and mitochondrial lipid peroxide (mLPO) accumulation and prevented by NAC and the microtubule inhibitor, Nocodazole. Increased Cardiolipin (CL) oxidation was also seen, and NAC and the peroxy radical scavenger Ferrostatin-1 prevented it. In contrast, in fibroblasts, APAM induced minimal cell death, mROS generation, mLPO accumulation, CL oxidation, and MPMC. These results suggest that MPMC is a tumor-specific cause of cell death via mitochondrial oxidative stress and microtubule-driven mitochondrial motility. MPMC might serve as a promising target for exerting tumor-specific cytotoxicity. O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=120 SRC="FIGDIR/small/466636v1_ufig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (20K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@1118e2corg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@18cf99corg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@57a7edorg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@d1f447_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG Graphical abstract C_FIG

cancer biology↗

bioRxiv2021

Chained structure of dimeric F1-like ATPase in Mycoplasma mobile gliding machinery

Mycoplasma mobile, a fish pathogen, exhibits gliding motility using ATP hydrolysis on solid surfaces, including animal cells. The gliding machinery can be divided into surface and internal structures. The internal structure of the motor is composed of 28 so-called chains that are each comprised of 17 repeating protein units called particles. These proteins include homologs of the catalytic - and {beta}-subunits of F1-ATPase. In this study, we isolated the particles and determined their structures using negative-staining electron microscopy and high-speed atomic force microscopy. The isolated particles were composed of five proteins, MMOBs 1660 (-subunit homolog), 1670 ({beta}-subunit homolog), 1630, 1620, and 4530, and showed ATP hydrolyzing activity. The 2D structure, with dimensions of 35 and 26 nm, showed a hexameric ring dimer about 12 nm in diameter, resembling F1-ATPase catalytic ({beta})3. We isolated the F1-like ATPase unit, which is composed of MMOBs 1660, 1670, and 1630. Furthermore, we isolated the chain and analyzed the 3D structure, showing that dimers of mushroom-like structures resembling F1-ATPase were connected and aligned along the dimer axis at 31 nm intervals. An atomic model of F1-ATPase catalytic ({beta})3 from Bacillus PS3 was successfully fitted to each hexameric ring of the mushroom-like structure. These results suggest that the motor for M. mobile gliding shares an evolutionary origin with F1-ATPase. Based on the obtained structure, we propose possible force transmission processes in the gliding mechanism. IMPORTANCEF1Fo- ATPase, a rotary ATPase, is widespread in the membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and bacteria, and converts ATP energy with a proton motive force across the membrane by its physical rotation. Homologous protein complexes play roles in ion and protein transport. Mycoplasma mobile, a pathogenic bacterium, was recently suggested to have a special motility system evolutionarily derived from F1-ATPase. The present study isolated the protein complex from Mycoplasma cells and supported this conclusion by clarifying the detailed structures containing common and novel features as F1-ATPase relatives.

microbiology↗

bioRxiv2021

Unraveling the host-selective toxic interaction of cassiicolin with lipid membranes and its cytotoxicity

Cassiicolin (Cas), a toxin produced by Corynespora cassiicola, is responsible for corynespora leaf fall disease in rubber trees. Currently, the molecular mechanism of the cytotoxicity of Cas and its host selectivity have not been fully elucidated. Here, we analyzed the binding of Cas1 and Cas2 to membranes consisting of different plant lipids and their membrane-disruption activities. Using high-speed atomic force microscopy and confocal microscopy, we reveal that the binding and disruption activities of Cas1 and Cas2 on lipid membranes are strongly dependent on the specific plant lipids. The negative phospholipids, glycerolipids, and sterols are more susceptible to membrane damage caused by Cas1 and Cas2 than neutral phospholipids and betaine lipids. Cytotoxicity tests on rubber leaves of RRIV 1, RRIV 4, and PB 255 clones suggest that the toxins cause necrosis of rubber leaves, except for the strong resistance of PB 255 against Cas2. Cryo- SEM analyses of necrotic leaf tissues exposed to Cas1 confirm that cytoplasmic membranes are vulnerable to the toxin. Thus, the host selectivity of Cas toxin is attained by the lipid-dependent binding activity of Cas to the membrane, and the cytotoxicity of Cas arises from its ability to form biofilm-like structures and disrupt specific membranes. Graphic Abstract O_FIG O_LINKSMALLFIG WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=116 SRC="FIGDIR/small/438527v2_ufig1.gif" ALT="Figure 1"> View larger version (42K): org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@17ef3f4org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@1c24d41org.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@15e071aorg.highwire.dtl.DTLVardef@24740e_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG HighlightsO_LICas1 and Cas2 directly damage and cause necrosis in the leaves of specific rubber clones. C_LIO_LICas1 and Cas2 can form biofilm-like structures on specific lipid membranes (negative phospholipids, glycerolipids, and sterols). The biofilm-like formation of Cas toxin plays an important role in selective disruption on lipid membranes. C_LIO_LIVulnerability of the specific cytoplasmic membranes to the selective Cas toxin that is the most remarkable feature of cytotoxicity of Cas toxin on plant cells. C_LI

biochemistry↗