Effects of Social Status on Reproductive Success, Physiology and Maternal Care in Socially housed Female Rhesus Macaques
This study examined the long-term effects of low social status on reproductive success and seasonal changes in reproductive and stress hormones of adult female rhesus macaques. Rhesus are a matriarchal, matrilineal species that form hierarchical social hierarchies maintained by aggression. Thus, animals in the bottom of the hierarchy (low social status: subordinate) experience high levels of aggression from those in higher social ranks and therefore must remain vigilant. Social subordination generates chronic psychosocial stress and could negatively impact reproductive function. Twenty-seven adult female rhesus monkeys (13 dominant -DOM-, 14 subordinate -SUB-; 8-11 years old) were studied for stress neuroendocrine function -measuring basal plasma levels of cortisol-, as well as for reproductive endocrine function -measuring basal levels of estradiol (E2). In addition, we examined the reproductive success rates of these females (defined as number of live births/years with male access), their success rates raising infants that survived to 1 year, and the characteristics and effectiveness of their maternal care. Our findings show significantly lower reproductive success rates in SUB than DOM females, blunted E2 seasonal changes, driven by higher E2 levels in the anovulatory season and more attentive maternal care of offspring early in life than dominant females. Age at first birth was negatively associated with infant survival rate across ranks. Interestingly, higher levels of reproductive hormones (E2) during the anovulatory season predicted lower reproductive success, although the effect was driven by animals lactating at that point. Overall, these findings suggest that subordinate female macaques show a phenotype consistent with impaired reproductive function. Simple SummaryThis study examined the long-term effects of low social status on reproductive success and seasonality of reproductive and stress physiology of female rhesus monkeys. The despotic rhesus social hierarchy is matrilineal and maintained by aggression. Males leave their natal group in bachelor groups around puberty, but females remain, so social status of group members is passed down the female line. Rhesus with low social status (subordinate) experience significantly more aggression and harassment than their higher-ranking counter parts (dominant). This makes rhesus macaques an ideal model for studying chronic psychosocial stress and its long-term effects. Our findings show significantly lower reproductive success rates (number of live births based on access to males; lower infant survival rates) in subordinate than dominant females. Subordinate females also show blunted seasonal changes of the gonadal hormone estradiol (E2), driven by higher E2 levels in the anovulatory season than dominant animals, as well as more attentive maternal care of offspring early in life than dominant animals. Age at first birth was negatively associated with infant survival rate across ranks. Interestingly, higher levels of reproductive hormones (E2) during the anovulatory season were associated with lower reproductive success, although the effect was driven by animals lactating at that point. Overall, these findings suggest that female macaques with lower social status show a phenotype consistent with impaired reproductive function, though the biological mechanisms involved need to be further explored.