RNA-sequencing analysis of a multistep and hit-and-run cell and animal model of KSHV tumorigenesis reveal the roles of mutations, CpG methylation, and viral-infection footprints in oncogenesis.
Human viral oncogenesis is the consequence of cell transformation mediated by virally encoded oncogenes in combination with host oncogenic alterations. Kaposis sarcoma (KS), caused by the Kaposis sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV), is an AIDS-associated cancer characterized by angiogenesis and spindle-cells proliferation. KSHV-infected KS lesions are composed of latently-infected cells, as well as cells expressing lytic genes that have been implicated in the development of the KS angioproliferative phenotype. The existence of KS lesions with varying levels of KSHV-infected cells suggests also the existence of virus-independent \"hit-and-run\" mechanisms of sarcomagenesis, whereby viral infection irreversibly induce genetic or epigenetic oncogenic alterations in host cells. We have integrated genetic mutations, changes in expression signatures and methylation analysis to dissect genetic and epigenetic signaling pathways in an unbiased manner in the mECK36 mouse model of KSHV tumorigenesis. Pathway analysis of differential expressed genes (DEGs) showed KSHV lytic switch, DNA methylation and Epigenetic as the most regulated pathways during KSHV-dependent in vivo tumorigenesis. Methylation analysis data indicates that during the development of KSHV-infected tumors the most changes were towards hypo-methylation of tissues specific genes and oncogenic signature pathways, on the other hand during viral loss and development of KSHV-negative tumors changes are towards hyper-methylation. Mutational analysis of KSHV-infected cells and tumors revealed a set of mutations, including mutations in three inflammasome-related IFN response genes, that were absent in KSHV-infected cells but present in all KSHV-infected tumors in the same loci pointing to clonal selection \"in vivo\". This result suggests that in the context of in vivo tumorigenesis both these mutations and the virus may determine tumor growth. On the other hand, clustering analysis of mutations driving KSHV-negative tumors reveal a network comprising PDGFRA D842V, Pak1 and Nucleolin mutations implicated in cell proliferation. Our results have uncovered novel specific aspects of the interplay between host oncogenic alterations and virus-induced transcriptional effects as well as the epigenetic changes induced by KSHV infection and tumorigenesis. The existence virally-induced irreversible genetic and epigenetic oncogenic alterations support the possibility for hit-and-run KSHV sarcomagenesis which is consistent with pathological and clinical findings.\n\nAUTHOR SUMMARYWe performed whole genome RNA sequencing and CpG DNA methylation analysis in a mouse bone-marrow endothelial-lineage cells (mEC) transfected with the KSHVBac36 (mECK36 cells), that are able to form KSHV-infected tumors in nude mice, which were thoroughly characterized as KS-like tumors. This unique model allowed us to dissect genetic and epigenetic mechanisms of KSHV dependent and hit-and-run sarcomagenesis. We found that during KSHV in vivo lytic switch and KSHV-dependent tumorigenesis DNA methylation and Epigenetic regulation are among the most host-regulated pathways. CpG DNA methylation analysis during transformation supports the notion that loss of methylation (hypo-methylation) is the major epigenetic change during this process. Sequence analysis of KSHV-positive tumors revealed that KSHV tumorigenesis not only selects for the presence of the virus but also pre-existing host mutations that allow the KSHV oncovirus to express the oncogenic lytic program and creates a permissive environment of inflammation and viral tumorigenesis providing a selective advantage in vivo.